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American
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Arno, Andrew. Structural Communication and Control Communication: An Interaction’s Perspective on Legal and Customary Procedures for Conflict Management. American Anthropologist March, 1985 Vol. 87(1): 40-55. In this article, the author believes that the analysis of legal and customary procedures for conflict management offer a glimpse into the dynamics of the social conflict situation. In turn, this will allow legal anthropology to explore the appropriateness of specific conflict control strategies and specific social settings. The author suggests that control communication replicates its own patterns of form and substance in the specific social processes to which it is applied. Broadly defined messages, of "structural" significance to actors, fall under the rubric of structural communication. Social actors read, interpret, and posit their interactions according to relative structural positions. Control communication is prevalent in private conversations as well as in public discussion, evaluation, and gossip with regard to social events of different types. Control communication and structural communication continuously interact with one another. Using legal means to cause change in a relationship, such as a marriage, would be one example. Interaction of control communication and structural communication is not only seen at the individual level; it can be observed at the macro level. The civil rights movement, reparations movements, and the relations between capital and labor management are all examples at the macro level. In conclusion, the author states that the underlying processual linkage among such diverse institutions as law courts, intrafamily conflict management, and collective bargaining relations resides in the common pattern of interaction between structural and control communication. CLARITY RANKING: 3
Arno, Andrew. Structural Communication and Control Communication: An Interactionist Perspective on Legal and Customary Procedures for Conflict Management. American Anthropologist 1985 Vol.87:40-55 Conflict control depends on the interaction between structural communication and control communication. It deals mainly with political anthropology, to reach a better understanding of inequity of human social order. Legal anthropology shows how inequality is maintained and continued though generations. The study of communication patterns to predict social behavior applies to certain conditions in which you are likely to respond in a certain manner varying within cultures. There are useful benefits in the study of legal theory for one; legal exclusivism can work to your favor if you can manipulate the system to provide explanations that meet their system judgment. In order to judge social behavior you must first have cultural regulations, a cultural norm in which they can determine what is acceptable and what is not. Power defines the
limits. Communication theory portrays a social organization, it is
also a manner of regulation in terms of relaying messages, hence "control
communication". We need both Structural and control communication of resovling conflict because they are involved in our everyday to manage behavior, to bargain and in the media. CLARITY: 2 .gif){kind=small} Atran, Scott. The Nature of Folk-Botanical Life Forms. American Anthropologist June, 1985 Vol. 87(2): 298-315. In this article, the author primarily is concerned with challenging various empiricist, inductivist presuppositions with regard to lay taxonomy and folk-botanical life forms in particular. Clarification of the historical and conceptual relationship between folk and scientific taxonomy is also a stated goal of the author. Folk-botanical life forms appear to represent a holistic view of the local flora (and its subsequent relationship with the local fauna) that is compatible with humankind’s existence. Life form divisions seem to be made on the basis of their place within the hierarchy of human ecology and their pertinence to everyday human life. Dealing with a localized context, folk-botanical life forms are not intended to be expanded to a larger geographical space of evolutionary schema. They are not phylogenetically "natural," nor are they more "artificial" or "special purpose" than other higher order scientific taxa. Folk-botanical life forms are anthropocentrically biased and help to partition the natural world in ways that are compatible with the human mind. Employment of these terms is not limited to the particular cultures in question; scientists as well as non-specialists use them. CLARITY RANKING: 3 Bastien, Joseph W. Qollahuaya-Andean Body Concepts: A Topographical-Hydraulic Model of Physiology. American Anthropologist September, 1985 Vol.87 (3): 595-611. The author proposes a topographical-hydraulic model to explain Qollahuaya ethnophysiology. He draws on ethnographic data to show that the Qollahuaya associate the human body with the landscape of a mountain and a hydraulic system with centrifugal and centripetal flows to the edges and the center of the mountain. Qollahuayas base their conception of the human body on their physical surroundings, specifically the mountain—ayllu. They divide the ayllu into three ecological zones inhabited by three communities. Bastien gathers his ethnographic data from Ayllu Kaata where the Ni okorin, Kaata, and Apacheta live and perform different roles in the exchange of produce, marriage, and ritual kinship. The ayllu is integral with different geographical features representing different body parts. On the mountain, a cyclical system of disintegration transforms life and death continually. The Qollahuaya extend the cyclical nature of natural processes onto human physiological processes. While similar to Greek humoral pathology—both models are based on the dichotomies of hot/cold and wet/dry—Qolloahuaya health does not depend on striking a balance among these qualities, but on how heat, cold, moisture, and dryness affect the cyclical hydraulic system of fluids—water, air, blood, and fat—in the human body. This model explains the attribution of various diseases to specific activities resulting in fluids dispersing from the body to the land, loss of blood or fat, too much wind, improper circulation or blockage, accumulation of toxic fluids, upsetting distillation processes, and improper relationships with the land, all of which are unfavorable conditions. Bastien uses ritual, pathological, and ethnopharmacological data to support the topographical-hydraulic model for human physiology. He shows how this model has grown out of historical patterns as well as the relationship of Andeans to the land. He presents ethnographic information gathered from Qollahuaya herbalists, correlating various medicinal plants with their effects on different bodily fluids and processes. He also provides a historical framework for anatomical metaphors associating landforms with body parts and shapes of animals dating back to the Inca, and currently among Quechua speakers. In the Quechua language, simple and compound lexemes extend geographical meanings to body parts and vice versa, reflecting the interrelation of geographic and body concepts. CLARITY RANKING: 4 Bastien, Joseph W. 1985. Qollahuaya-Andean Body Concepts: A Topographical-Hydraulic Model of Physiology. American Anthropologist.1989 Vol. 87 (3): 595-611. Bastien’s (1985) article reflects on the need to incorporate concepts of self into modern medical practices if those concepts differ from those of the medical practitioner and/or the society at large. Using Bolivian peasants as an example in the opening paragraph Bastien (1985: 595) shows how medical care facilities have increased while the number of patients have not increased significantly over the years. Bastien’s research is focused on gathering data that would facilitate the interactions between peasants whose beliefs about the body and its care differ from those of the mainstream. In the article Bastien (1985) describes his research among the Qollahuaya of the Bolivian Andes. Bastien’s (1985) goal is to draw a picture of what the Qollahuaya believe about their bodies and how they confront medical issues. According to Bastien (1985), the Qollahuaya have a complex system of medical practices that incorporate both body and spirit; the description of what the Qollahuaya believe about their body’s working is too lengthy and complex to describe in such a short summary. However, an attempt will be made to present Bastien main objectives. The Qollahuaya, according to Bastien (1985:601), have what he describes as a “topographical-hydraulic model of physiology.” Bastien (1985: 601) further forwards that the Qollahuaya believe that the earth provides cures through special plants that are gifts from their Gods. It is easy for a westerner to see how such beliefs would conflict with modern medical practices and/or practitioners. Bastien’s main objective in collecting his data on the Qollahuaya is to provide this knowledge to modern medical practitioners so that they can devise methods of treatment that the Qollahuaya and other natives can accept. Baines, John. Color Terminology and Color Classification: Ancient Egyptian Color Terminology and Polychromy. American Anthropologist June, 1985 Vol. 87(1): 282-293. John Baines's article
attempts to evaluate the efficacy of the The Evidence from ancient CLARITY RANKING: 1
Baines, John. Color Terminology and Color Classification: Ancient Egyptian Color Terminology Polychromy. American Anthropologist. 1985 Vol. 87: 282-293. Baines writes a very technical article concerned with both socio-historical and linguistic symbolism. Relying very heavily on previous work and comparisons, Baines examines the use of specific terms for particular color ideas. Also present in the article is the argument against linguistic determinism or the theory that humanity innately gives the same response to the same stimulus. Older research indicated that out that certain ideas were characteristic of humanity as a whole. Baines uses Ancient Egyptian pictorials as a comparison, arguing that while the color ideas may represent common ideas about color, the pictorials do not represent any universal ideas. While this article is very technical and specifically linguistic it can be used in larger discussions of cultural relativism. As it does not directly deal with relativism it is filled with broadly based postmodern ideas. CLARITY: 1 Belmonte, Thomas. Alexander Lesser (1902-1982). American Anthropologist September 1985 Vol. 87(3):637-644. Belmonte seeks to show the important theoretical accomplishments, new ideas, and engagements in applied anthropology, which made Alexander Lesser one of the foremost anthropologists of his day. The intellectual life of this man, as well as his life as an activist for Native American rights are reviewed. The account is ordered chronologically and traces Lesser’s early education under Boas and his resistance to an entirely Boasian and particularist framework. It then traces his career through several different episodes of field research among the Sioux and Pawnee, culminating in the publication of The Pawnee Ghost Dance Hand Game (1933) on the features and implications of the Ghost Dance among the Pawnee. Lesser’s engagement in the debates of the time about the future of anthropology in relation to history and evolutionary theory led him to present a paper about evolutionary theory in 1939 at the AAA meetings, just before Leslie White presented his paper about the future of evolutionary study in anthropology. Lesser’s suggestions to move beyond unilinear evolution were immediately heeded. Belmonte counts
his greatest achievements in publishing the first scientifically sound
rebuttal of the race concept, and his position as director of the Association
of American Indian Affairs, in which he lobbied for the maintenance
of treaty rights of Native Americans along with their rights as citizens
of the Belmonte concludes that Lesser was an important figure in the development of the discipline of anthropology, theoretically and methodologically, although his theoretical contributions are often forgotten. Belmonte suggests this is in large part because of his middle position between functionalism and American ethnology. The compromise he sought between the two was not popular with either side. He was, however a formidable theoretician in his own right as well as, as a critic. Lesser’s criticisms of Radcliffe-Brown resulted in a more dynamic and workable reformulation of the functional framework. CLARITY RANKING: 5
Belmonte, Thomas. Alexander Lesser (1902-1982). American Anthropologist, 1985 Vol 87:637-643 Thomas Belmonte’s articles is a dedication to the life and work of Alexander Lesser, who passed away in 1982. This article focuses on how his work bears witness to the emergence of cultural anthropology as a vigorous secular force in American life. The article begins
by discussing Lesser’s education at Following this he
went to Pawnee, The article further
highlights important parts of Lesser’s work and life. It tells about
his lecturing at One highlight that
the article addresses is Lesser’s contribution to the legal battle
in which the federal government tried to back out of its treaty obligations
with Native Americans. Lesser had a major political impact in This article is an excellent summary of Alexander Lesser, an anthropologist who worked hard and made in a difference. He was convinced that anthropology was a revolutionary cultural emergent, a fresh new way of looking at life, which would come to play a decisive historical role whenever people had to make critical choices. CLARITY RANKING: 5 Briggs, Charles L. The Pragmatics of Proverb Performance in New Mexican Spanish. American Anthropologist December, 1985 Vol. 87(4):793-810. In this article, Briggs examines the subtle nuances of proverb performance in New Mexican Spanish. His approach to the study of proverbs stems from the belief that a competent analysis of both the meaning and structure can only be found if the interview and other types of information are coupled with the original transcripts of the actual occurrences. There is a two pronged focus to this article, the social setting in which proverbs are used and whether or not proverb performances are an entirely literary phenomenon. In his analysis he focuses on three exchanges between himself and one of his key informants. Briggs highlights two key uses of proverbs in this community but only one is represented in this study due the invasiveness of the ethnographer. The transcripts are given in both Spanish and English with the proverb italicized, following his theory that a reader needs not only the analysis, but also the conversation to fully understand the proverb. He then breaks down performance into eight prescribed steps that the speaker travels through. He does site variation in the pattern depending upon the skill of the listener and the importance of the intended message. The proverbs themselves are links between modern culture and the wisdom of the past. No modern words or communicative concepts are used during a performance. The proverb performances are an important skill that reinforces and underlines the significance of what is to be said. Acknowledgments and body signals are the only responses that are to be given by the listener. This type of response leads Briggs to the second of his theses. When speakers begin their performance they must gauge the skill of the listeners and also signal that they are beginning. At the same time the listeners acknowledge that they know a change has taken place in the conversation and they are ready for it with their body language. This in itself is a cue to the skill of the listeners; If they do not acknowledge the performance the speaker knows that they have gauged the skill too high; if they have gauged too low then the listeners knows that they have been slighted. By looking at the "text" as well as more subtle information Briggs hopes to advance the awareness of the relationships between concrete and general understanding in language and culture. CLARITY RANKING: 4
Briggs, Charles. The Pragmatics of Proverb Performance in New Mexican Spanish American Anthropologist 1985 Vol. 87: 793-810. The main purpose
of this article is to examine and explain proverb performance in The author then explains where his research takes place and what he intends to prove. He explains that speech among Cordovans is based on the ability to use rhetoric and the ability to convey feelings of the situation using proper intonation. Briggs believes that there are two contexts for proverbs in Mexicano society. First, elders speaking to each other, and second, elders speaking to those younger than them. He then gives two examples of these contexts through two dialogues taken from his time spent with native Cordovans (given in Spanish and then translated to English). Briggs goes on to explain the eight features of proverb performance which are: tying phrases, identity of the owner, quotation-framing verb, proverb text, special association, general meaning, relevance to context, and validation of the performance. Each feature is described in detail. He explains that some of the features are not always obvious in many proverb performances and that different combinations of the features are used depending on the context of the conversation. In his conclusion, Briggs links his study of Mexicano proverb performance to the broader issue of the use of language in society. In order to further understand this he uses several examples of other proverb and speech studies. Briggs suggests that proverb performances can be used to better understand social interaction and the role of speech in a given society. He then re-enforces this with his study of Mexicano proverb performance. CLARITY RANKING: 3 Buikstra, Jane E. and Lyle W. Konigsberg. Paleodemographies: Critiques and Controversies. American Anthropologist June, 1985 Vol.87 (2): 316-333. The authors evaluate and contest criticisms leveled against the use of life tables in paleodemography by Bocquet-Appel and Masset in an article entitled "Farewell to Paleodemography," published in 1982. They address each specific comment, citing evidence in the paleodemographic literature and statistical results of simulations conducted by the authors themselves. The critiques generally deal with biases introduced by reference samples and the population-specificity of techniques for estimating age in skeletal remains. Based on their analyses, Bocquet-Appel and Masset’s comments are extreme, but the authors agree that problems with imprecision of age indicators in older adults and interobserver error remain. The first criticism
they address is the statement that paleopopulation mortality profiles
do not vary significantly from those of the reference samples used
to generate them. Buikstra and The next proposition
they evaluate is that standards developed from populations with unevenly
represented age classes are likely to lead to biased estimates. Bocquet-Appel
and Masset claim this based on their subsampling of estimates derived
from defining cranial suture closure, which has been known to be a
questionable age indicator for some time. Buikstra and Bocquet-Appel and
Masset allege that age-estimation standards are reliable only for the
population, sex, or age group for which they are developed. Buikstra
and Bocquet-Appel and Masset further claim that methods are insufficiently accurate to the extent that reliable life table parameters cannot be established, and that the information conveyed by age indicators is so poor that any variations in age distributions can only be attributed to errors of method or random fluctuations. The authors respond by saying that Bocquet-Appel and Masset falsely assume that these problems are impossible to correct, and examine life tables generated from 26 different North American skeletal samples. Their statistical analyses to determine the sources of variance suggest that comparing specific values may be dangerous, but comparing shape functions can be meaningful. Overall, the authors find much of the criticism to be overgeneralized or unfounded, but they concede that there is an urgent need to improve upon methods for accurately estimating age in older adults and to standardize techniques across observers. Paleodemographic results must also be evaluated in light of what is considered to be biologically reasonable. CLARITY RANKING: 2
Buikstra, Jane
E., Lyle W. The article by Buikstra
and The article focused on the five criticisms of Bocquet-Appel and Masset (1982) with respect to these life tables and the "imprecision of skeletal aging methodology" ( a method using skeletal remains to study extinct populations). Each criticism was presented in detail and discussed the implications about the assumptions made in the human evolutionary process, proving the assumptions to be very critical and possessing a high occurrence of error. The authors stated the need to refine methods for accurately estimating age in older adults and to standardize aging techniques across observers. Also, attention to statistical techniques for population comparisons would be ideal. CLARITY: 2 CARLA DI GIANDOMENICO Devine, John. The Versatility of Human Locomotion. American Anthropologist September, 1985 Vol.87(3):550-570 In this article, Devine addresses the way we view human locomotion. When studying human bipedalism, researchers use evidence from the non-human primates, the hominid and nonhominid fossil record, and modern humans. Devine challenges the way that we examine modern human locomotion, claiming that it is oversimplified and ethnocentric. Traditionally, researchers have labeled humans as having a "striding gait". This statement ignores much of the variety in human motion. Devine proposes that this oversimplification is a result of researchers using a Western, post-industrialized perspective, in which humans ideally lead more sedentary lives and fail to utilize the full range of possible human movements. Devine uses various written records to create a more thorough view of human locomotion in many cultures. Reports from missionaries, explorers, ethnographers, and recent anthropologists are all used as data. For the sake of manageability, Devine examines five generalized aspects of human locomotion: endurance, speed, burden bearing, climbing, and single file walking. Ethnographic studies have greatly expanded our views on human endurance. Individuals living in band societies or subsistence economies are capable of much greater feats of endurance than we once thought possible. Recent studies of the Tarahumaran have lead scientists to double what they once thought was the maximum work tolerance for humans. Devine also challenges the assumption that modern humans are inferior, in speed and agility, to other mammals. Most of our estimates of maximal speed come either from racing animals that humans have selectively bred for speed, or captive animals in controlled conditions. Studies of various animals in the wild show a much lower range of speeds. While Western society places a great deal of importance on the sprint, in most societies it is speed over long distances that is vital. After revision, the modern human range of speeds and that of many quadrupeds overlap considerably. Various reports
from Africa, This article presents a new dimension to the study of human movement. Devine makes a good case for an expanded view of human locomotion that takes into account the wide range of movements used in various societies. CLARITY RANKING: 4
Devine, J. The Versatility of Human Locomotion. American Anthropologist 1985 Vol. 87:550-564 The author’s objective is to describe his study that he did on the evolution of human bipedal posture and locomotion. The author studied three different groups, the extant nonhuman primates, the hominid and nonhominid fossils and modern humans. The author pointed out "Analysis of the interrelationship of structure and behaviour in the living primates creates model for our understanding of the morphology and locomotion of the extinct form. Comparisons between these models and what we know of Homo sapiens enable us to make inferences about the evolutionary changes that took place." Although modern studies have recognized the inherent complexities and the many interpretations surrounding the first and second of theses analogues, the range of human locomotion has too often been reduced to the familiar "bipedal striding gait." Human locomotion was studied in 160 societies through the use of early travel accounts and ethnographic literature. These pieces of information helped Devine get a clear answer on the evolution of locomotion. Devine concluded that as a result of the values western society has placed on an inactive way of life which devaluates movement, the common "striding gait" of humans has taken on a kind of misplaced concreteness. It is seen that that different variations and subtle differences in gait, style, speed and endurance play a big part in the growth of human locomotion. These multiple concepts have important implications for the construction of models of the evolution of hominid bipedalism. CLARITY RANKING: 4 Edmonson, Munro
S. The linguistic anthropologist
Marshall E. Durbin was born August 18, 1936, in CLARITY RANKING: 5 Edmonson, Munro S. 1985. Marshall E. Durbin (1936-1983). American Anthropologist 1985Vol. 87 (2): 378-379. The article by Edmonson is an obituary highlighting and reflecting on the life of the late Marshall E. Durbin. Marshall E. Durbin (Edmonson, 1985: 378-379) was a linguistic anthropologist who dedicated his career to the study of Mayan linguistics. Durbin, according to Edmonson (1985: 379), also made advances in the study of Athabaskan and Cariban languages. Durbin is described by Edmonson (1985: 378-379) as a dedicated researcher who demanded precision and dedication in his own work and in that of other’s. His sphere of research (Edmonson, 1985: 378) included works that analyzed theoretical issues in linguistics that encompassed “social, psychological, and cognitive issues.” As a person Durbin
is described (Edmonson, 1985: 378-379) as an individual who shared
his work and ambitions with those who surrounded him and one who did
not let geographical distances keep him from those he associated with
during his life. According to
Edmonson (1985: 378), Durbin was a researcher who based his findings,
whether theoretical or otherwise, on the validity of the data that
was being used. Durbin, according to Edmonson (1985: 378),
did not limit his research to one area, he help gather linguistic knowledge
in “ Finney, Ben R. Anomalous
Westerlies, El Nino, and the Colonization of Finney proposes an explanation for the west to east migration of the Polynesians and their Lapita predecessors in the Pacific. Using aeronautical charts, ethnohistorical data, the El Nino phenomenon and data gathered during recent El Nino events, he shows how they could use periodic westerly wind reversals to sail eastward. Finney first shows the illogical nature of the previous explanation for the migrations, where the assumption was that they simply sailed into the wind. With the loaded canoes of the Polynesians, says Finney, one nautical mile against the wind would equal 3.9 miles, which would add up to far too many extra miles for them to travel. Finney next proposes his new model. The winds do not always travel east to west, and in fact, says Finney, the southeast trade winds of the western Pacific are often replaced by westerly winds. Finney looks at charts made by the US Navy Hydrographic Office that show seasonality in the strength of these winds. During El Nino events, "the westerly wind reversals can last much longer and extend much farther to the east than their usual annual limits." Finney uses data from the 1982-83 El Nino event as an example. Historical documents show that the 18th and 19th century Polynesian mariners were familiar with the patterns of these westerly winds and often used them to sail eastward. Finney proposes that the Lapitians, the Polynesian ancestors, "must have waited for favorable westerly winds in order to make their way to the east." Typically these western winds come in spells that may last up to ten days, long enough for west to east island hopping. Finney also looks at more risky west to east ventures, such as the archaeological evidence supporting the early settling of the Marquesas. He explains this venture as an especially strong El Nino occurrence. He also discusses the possibility that the Polynesians may have reached as far east as South America, showing that the South American sweet potato was historically found to be cultivated in eastern Polynesia. With such ventures, says Finney, there was also a definite risk. The Lapitians must have had some desire to expand eastward. Archaeological evidence supports the idea of organized colonizing expeditions traveling from west to east, which suggests an organized strategy on the part of the oceanic voyagers. However, this remains uncertain. CLARITY RANKING: 4
Finney, Ben. Anomalous
Westerlies, El Nino, and the Colonization of The article begins
with a brief introduction to Pacific pre-history of how the Polynesians
migrated from Finney went further to find the correlation between the annual and monthly wind patterns with Lapita-Polenesian migration trails. Only to discover archeological proof of radiocarbon dating of migrants spreading quickly along the coast. They strategically wait for the westerlies in November, December and January when the wind currents was not as strong before they migrate. Which is why they were able to migrate along the coast so quickly. Western Polynesia
consisted of the The circulation of the Polynesians migrants was a series of voyages from island to island. The most convenient times to migrate was during the seasons where the wind was in their favor. They were strategic enough to analyze which months are the best for traveling the seas and intelligent enough to navigate without any instruments. CLARITY: 3 Greenhalgh, Susan. Is
Inequality Demographically Induced? The Family Cycle and the Distribution
of Income in By exploring the sources of inequality and mobility in a sample of Taiwanese families, Susan Greenhalgh attempts to test A. V. Chayanov’s hypothesis that rural inequality is demographically induced. While some change in economic and social inequality stems from global economic and political change, Chayanov argues that it is the natural cycle of the change in a family’s distribution that causes economic mobility. Greenhalgh researches this hypothesis by statistically analyzing the economic data from both a demographic and a social standpoint and then comparing the results to see if either factor had an obviously stronger correlation. In the comparative analysis the family cycle was shown to be the most important source of economic difference when compared with social class for this sample population. She feels that causality is not an issue of which factor causes the other, but rather how much each factor affects the other and at what points in time the different processes carry more weight. In order to determine how much inequality was due to each factor alone, Greenhalgh "controlled for" class by measuring the contribution of the family cycle to inequality within each class (587). She concludes that in this community Chayanov was correct; a substantial component of inequality is demographically based. However, she feels that research needs to be done in other cultural contexts and that the importance of the family cycle will differ in societies that are based on nuclear families. The author is very methodical and presents a great deal of statistical detail with many charts and graphs that must be read very closely and carefully. CLARITY RANKING: 4
Greenhalgh, Susan. Is
Inequality Demographically Induced? The Family Cycle and the Distribution
of Income in Susan Greenhalgh explores the nature and causes of economic inequality focusing on the debate between Chayanov’s and Marxists theories. Chayanov argues that the causes for economic inequality are demographic, while Marxists argue they are social. Taking root in Chayanov’s socio-demographic theory, Greenhalgh argues that families go through cycles which create patterns of income fluctuation. Thus, it is the repercussions of different phases in the family cycle that causes inequality and poverty. The data was collected
within 21 months of research in northern Recognizing that identical data had supported both Chayanov’s and Marxist theories, she decided to discover how the factors exposed in each theory affected each other and at what times they operated individually. She studied each factor by controlling the other, and found out that in Taiwanese society the family cycle accounts for "about two times as much more inequality, three times as much mobility, and one and three quarters times as much mobility into and out of poverty as social class". Accordingly, she concludes that an essential part of economic inequality concerns the familial demographic for at least one Chinese sample, as Chayanov had previously suggested. Nevertheless, Greenhalgh stated that her conclusions must remain as a hypothesis. Her research was based on a small non-random sample, therefore research with a larger representative sample is needed to corroborate and validate her findings. Likewise, research has to be replicated in other cultural settings in order for her conclusions to be considered legitimate. Greenhalgh, at the same time believes that a smaller distributional impact would be felt in societies where families are nuclear. CLARITY RANKING: 3 Hockett, Charles F. Distinguished Lecture: F. American Anthropologist June, 1985. Vol. 87(2):263-281. In his "Distinguished Lecture: F," Charles F. Hockett puts forth a hypothesis that even he admits ought to be met with skepticism. He suggests a correlation between the use of f-sounds and the practice of agriculture. While doing research on language systems, Hockett noticed the relative scarcity of the f-sound in world languages. His initial research figured that only 19% of language used f-sounds, but after he started his investigation, later information corrected the figure to 44%. Nevertheless, the author decided that the chronological and geographical distribution of f-sounds were more interesting than the frequency and continued his research. The article travels
around the globe, systematically listing the geographical distribution
of the f-sound and its relationship to the onset of agriculture. The
distribution does not have distinct boundaries, as use and non-use
languages are mixed within regions and continents. F-sounds predominate
in European and Near Eastern languages, and in Chinese dialects. Conversely,
the sound is less common or nonexistent in the rest of Asia and aboriginal
North and Hockett relates farming to the use of f-sounds because he finds the sound to be absent in populations that do not use agriculture. He also states that current evidence shows that f-sounds developed after the advent of agriculture. According to the author, the move from the need to cut and tear flesh from to the increase in consumption of cereal grains affected dentition and tooth wear. The diet change caused the edge bite, in which the incisors meet edge-to-edge, to be replaced by the scissors bite, where the top row of incisors slides in front of the bottom row, allowing for greater use of the molars to grind food. If a person has a scissors bite, Hockett explains, he or she can more easily produce f-sounds. Ultimately, the author is not convinced that his hypothesis is correct. He admits the lack of data and research on dental configuration as it relates to his theory, and suggests further examination of the evidence. CLARITY RANKING: 5
Hockett, Charles F. Distinguished Lecture: F. American Anthropologist 1985 Vol.87:263-281 Hockett examines the occurrence of the voiced labial fricative f-sound throughout the world. He hypothesizes that where the f-sound occurs, there is a relationship between the existence of the sound in a language and agriculture. In various other
studies, the sound is found to exist over space and time. Although
a language may use the f-sound, it could have been introduced only
relatively recently. All the European languages have f-sounds. Around
Oceania and the A historical aspect of the distribution is also examined. Where importation of words and language has occurred through the economically dominant language, the introduction of the f-sound into the dialect can be found. Where agriculture did not always exist, recent cultivation can still have an effect. The f-sound, according to Hockett, can be introduced through one sound of a language becoming the f-sound, or that the f-sound can be introduced from other languages. The origin of the f-sound is examined among several protolanguages. The f-sound can be gained and lost several ways. With the evidence of the existence and history of f-sounds in languages, Hockett proceeds to theorize that the existence of the sound can be linked to the position of teeth. Eating different foods changed the shape of the mouth and teeth, therefore changing the range of pronunciation. So with the introduction of agriculture, diet changed. This environmental factor combined with genetic factors changed the formation of the teeth and jaw, leading to the existence of the f-sound among certain dialects of languages. CLARITY: 4 Keesing, R. Kwaio
Women Speak: The Micro politics of Autobiography in a The objective of
this article is to show an example of a society where the sexes are
polarized and women are placed under jural control over men, and are
forced to stay confined to their homes. These women tend to be very
silent and are very uneasy to speak about "global" views.
This idea of women being worthless and not respected has posed both
a theoretical and political problem for feminist anthropology and a
frustration to ethnographers who would open women’s lives to comparative
view. Research was done among the Kwaio of Malaita in the Women in a Tribal society are less likely to have a "global" view of their culture because their restricted participation in a public context. What women can and will say about their also reflects the politics of the situation both in relations to male control over the ethnographic process and in relation to the value and pressures that shape women’s self-conceptions. In the present women are slowly gaining more right and are slowly becoming equals too men. Women’s lives and freedoms have changed quiet dramatically through Western influences and pacification. The effect of pacification on women’s lives has been remarkable. Before pacification, the threat of violence and sudden execution directed against women gave men an ultimate physical power over women’s lives that they no longer have. CLARITY RANKING: 4 For many years tool
use and related adaptations have been proposed as the original cause
for the evolution of human social behavior. In order to test
this theory There is little consensus on the diet of early hominids, however there is some agreement on the nature of Miocene climatic changes and their effects on the environment. Increased open areas and a temperate climate would have lead to a savanna environment. Regardless of whether these early hominids were mainly herbivores, hunters, scavengers, or some combination, this environmental shift would cause greater dispersal of good foraging patches. In this case search time becomes the limiting factor in foraging efficiency. Sharing information about the location and quality of food items decreases overall search time. As long as all individuals encounter difficulties foraging, then information exchange would be to the benefit of the individual and lead to the evolution of a system of reciprocity. Somewhat larger group size would be advantageous, especially if the members are close relatives, thereby bringing kin selection into the equation. Any system of reciprocity is vulnerable to cheaters, but as long as individuals can interact preferentially and punish cheaters, a stable system can be maintained. This model is untestable
at the present time because there is little data on food encounter
probabilities in the literature. However, CLARITY RANKING: 5
This article argues that during the course of hominid evolution cooperative foraging incorporating data exchange may have preceded tool use. Rodman and Mchenry (1980) have argued that hominid bipedalism may have evolved during which, foraging activity necessitated increased travel between food patches. Thus, the following article suggests efficient feeding tactic to have been responsible for the evolution of eusocial hominids from gregarious hominids. Considering the principles of optimal Foraging Theory to provide the basis for the stated hypothesis. Thus, by investigating search, labour, and handling time and optimal foraging model, the article concludes that by foraging for large, widely distributed prey may have favoured information sharing and thus food sharing by early hominids. As a result of group labour activity then the evolution of human manipulative and cognitive ability may have increased. Thereby, considering the logically and temporally, acquiring food has priority in human evolution. Thus, a key to hominid evolution is the social foraging dependent on communication and resource exchange of information. CLARITY RANKING: 3 Landsman, Gail. Ganienkeh: Symbol and Politics in an Indian/White Conflict. American Anthropologist 1985 Vol. 87:826-837. The author of this
article demonstrates the use of symbols and politics in a land conflict
in upstate For Whites the controversy was between rural upstate and urban downstate interests; for Mohawks, the pre-existing controversy was the historical struggle for sovereignty. These two controversies serve as "interpretive frameworks" by means of which dispute participants understand events and in terms of which they have acted and presented their case to the public for support. The writer uses the term "interpretive framework" in the analysis to suggest the type of connection existing between various meanings in the dispute. The article illustrates how specific symbols in the dispute changed over time and space and how their mobilization efficacy was derived from the basic upstate/downstate controversy. The upstate/downstate conflict provided both sides with a pool of symbols from which to draw for the specific dispute and a conceptual framework for interpreting and acting on events. In the first years of the conflict and for the purpose of taking the land, the Mohawks used frameworks and symbols of sovereignty. The struggle for land is both a return to the past and a promise of a future as the Mohawk nation. Past and future, sovereignty and land, are all inextricably linked, and their intertwined meanings provide a basis for Mohawk action in the dispute. White residents continue to see "sovereignty" as a double standard of justice inflicted upon them by an urban, downstate-controlled state government. Throughout the course of the dispute, events have been interpreted within these two frameworks. For this reason, the dispute is only temporarily resolved in each arena. Landsman suggests that an answer for how symbols are made to work in political mobilisation can be found in the concurrence of changes in symbols with continuity of interpretive frameworks. Furthermore, the process of symbol changes and manipulates over time the concept of interpretive framework and offers insight into how symbols are used to link meaning to political action. CLARITY: 3 Laughlin, William
S. Russian-American In this article,
the author reviews the historical research exchange between the Through a chronicling
of the individual researchers and their methodologies, the author shows
how a sustained cultural interface of exchange has existed between
the two counties for well over 250 years. The four scholars chronicles
by the author are William Dall, Dr. Waldemar Jochelson, Dr. Ales Hrdlicka,
and Alexei Okladnikov. The uniqueness of the The author discusses and focuses on the need for reciprocation to continue, and hopes that in the future more researchers will appear and will further benefit from the long chain of researchers and research exchanges already existing. American scholars should continue their investigations and continually engage Soviet scholars in systematic investigations for mutual benefit. CLARITY RANKING: 2
Laughlin W.S. Russian-American This is an article
based on the various researches done on Aleuts and Personal photographs of the author taken during his field study as well as relevant tables and maps of the area are included in this article. This is an interesting article to read although it then to get a little boring at certain theoretical parts. CLARITY RANKING: 3 Lukacs, John
R. Tooth Size Variation in Prehistoric The author describes
permanent tooth crown measurements and indices for Late Chalcolithic
skeletal populations from Inamgaon (1700-700 B.C.) in western The specimens evaluated in this study came from three distinct culture periods: Period I, Malwa (1700-1400 B.C.), Period II, Early Jorwe (1400-1200 B.C.), and Period III, Late Jorwe (1200-700 B.C.). This analysis is based on pooled samples of permanent teeth from different cultural levels since subdividing the sample by cultural period yielded inadequately small samples. Each tooth was measured for two values—the maximum mesiodistal diameter and the maximum buccolingual diameter. These values were used to calculate crown area, crown index, and crown module, which reflect crown size, shape, and bulk, respectively. Three more values were calculated to determine genetic affinity, including incisor breadth index, molarization index, and step-index. These represent various size ratios between different teeth in an individual and are believed to be ethnically patterned. Lukacs takes into account an understanding of the evolutionary mechanisms that cause dental reduction and a detailed consideration of ancestry, mode of subsistence, diet and food preparation methods in order to explain large tooth size among Chalcolithic people at Inamgaon. Both selective and nonselective evolutionary mechanisms contribute to dental reduction. Selective models interpret small tooth size as an advantageous adaptation based on many factors, including somatic budget effect, susceptibility to disease, reduction in robusticity of jaws, decrease in sexual dimorphism, and body size reduction. Nonadaptive models view dental reduction as caused by suspended natural selection for large tooth size. The author thinks the large teeth of the Jorwe people at Inamgaon are plausibly explained by masticatory stress associated with a mixed economy and basic food preparation methods, and a genetic predisposition for large teeth inherited from their ancestors of the Malwa culture. CLARITY RANKING: 4
Lukacs, John
R. Tooth Size Variation in Prehistoric This article represents
a study of tooth size variation within prehistoric The author asserts that the study of tooth size variation is quite significant to anthropology, in regards to skeletal observation. This is due to the fact that well-preserved skulls are extremely rare (or absent). Dental morphology and the study of crown dimensions therefore provide the most reliable evidence concerning "genetic affinities, health status, and biological adaptedness of the population". Due to this reasoning, anatomical variation of teeth, as well as population differences in tooth size and morphology have been profoundly examined by Western anthropologists. The results of this study conclude that the Inamgaon permanent teeth (which are 1 218mm²) are extremely similar to the prehistoric skeletal series from Mahurjhari, India, Nok Nok Tha, Thailand, and Bellan Bandi Palassa, Sri Lanka. The researchers also found that the Inamgaon tooth size (total crown area) is only 3.1% smaller than the figure reported earlier from similar areas. What is therefore concluded is that the relatively large tooth size at Inamgaon can be interpreted as a biological acculturation to unrefined nutritive items. Some influencing factors include basic food preparation, the hunting of wild game and wild fruit collection. CLARITY RANKING: 2 Molnar, Stephen and I.M. Molnar. The Incidence of Enamel Hypoplasia among the Krapina Neandertals. American Anthropologist September, 1985 Vol. 87(3): 536-549. In this article,
the authors investigate developmental defects of teeth as a record
of metabolic disturbances during growth. The sample investigated in
this study is from a group of Neandertal skeletal fragments, specifically
from the Krapina Neandertals of Hypoplasia is a quantitative defect, resulting in less than the normal amount of enamel in certain positions on the crown. Due to the incremental nature of tooth development, locations of tooth defects and lesions can be located in positions that mark the approximate time of metabolic disturbance. In terms of the eighteen remains studied, thirteen had evidence of enamel dysplasia of both the linear and pitting types. The authors compare the result of the Neandertal dental attrition survey with other Bronze Age peoples and investigate the amount of flourosis seen in the populations. The authors end the article by describing some of the promise that dental tissues holds as a record of developmental disturbances which may prove useful in comparative, bioanthropological population studies. CLARITY RANKING: 4 Morris, Craig. Obituary: Junius Bouton Bird (1907-1982) American Anthropologist March, 1985 Vol. 87(1):120-122. This obituary relates
the interests and enthusiasm of Junius Bouton Bird. Bird, who passed
away on April 2, 1982, was an American archeologist whose work covered
the early occupation of While his professional work was outstanding, Bird’s personal demeanor and accessibility made him popular among students and colleagues. Craig Morris explains that Bird’s office in the museum was usually occupied by visitors seeking help, who he enthusiastically assisted. He and his wife readily entertained guests with meals and stor |
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