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American
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Albrecht, Andrew
C. Indian-French Relations at In the article, Indian-French
Relations at Natchez, Andrew Albrecht examines the association
of the Indian and French societies in To clarify the complex
relationship of the French and Natchez Indians, Albrecht divides the
years that the French and Natchez Indians lived side by side into six
major developments, each marked by French actions and Albrecht presents
his argument based on the first-hand writings of the French residing
in This article will
interest individuals who study acculturation, specifically the acculturation
of Native Americans. Particularly it is of interest because at CLARITY RANKING:
4 HEATHER LAW TALLANT The .gif){kind=small} Angel, J. Lawrence. "Social Biology of Greek Culture Growth American Anthropologist. 1946 Vol.48 No.22 pp.493 In the wake of the second world war, J Lawrence Angel became interested in the degree to which social biology affects culture change. Perhaps this prompted the publishing of this paper on Greek social biology. The main focus of determining how interacting cultures and people affect the direction of cultures may have been prompted by the nazi policy against certain people groups, and their focus on a racially "pure" nation. Greek culture is a culture which had much interaction with other people groups, as the mediterranean area has for some time been a trading hub. Information on this culture is also generally well preserved and researched, and for the most part easily accessible. The authour challenges the theory that culture development is mostly responsible by the elite, and implies that culture change is more havily influenced through the masses, and their interactions with other cultures. To this end, there is provided a section in the paper on "Chronology and Culture Growth". In this section is outlined a somewhat brief history of Greek periods and cultural development. The information behind the study is further explored through sections on "Environmental Challenges", "Ecology", "Ethnic Groups", "Population", "Racial Types", "Physical Change: Environment", "Physical Change: Social Biology", and "Heterogeneity, Fusion, and Achievement". Also included are information tables on occurances of recognized racial traits, including "Ancient Greek Cranial Types", "Chronological Change in Ancient Greek Males and Females", Chronological Change in Percentage Frequency of Cranial Types (Both Sexes Combined)", "Mean Chronological Change in Ancient Greece Based on all Available Data for Each Sex", "Ancient Greek Male Variability Constants, and Subjective Indicators of Heterogeneity", "Culture Growth in Isthmian Greece Shown in a Subjective List of Important New Traits", and "Subjective Chart of Parallel Change in Culture, Population, Ethnos, Race, and Environment". In conclusion, the authour states that heterogeneity and fusion were positive factors in the development of Greek culture. Also conceding that the study is somewhat obscure and open to other interpretations, he makes the statement that the introduction of new people and concepts from outside of a society can have the effect of allowing the society to grow more effectively. It is noted that this growth is not always a positive thing, as moral improvement does not always accompany increasing social energy and material growth. Finally, the authour urges that if the growing heterogeneity in the world today is to be used in a positive manner, we must come to a far greater understanding of racial and ethnic values in a culturally shrinking world. CLARITY RANKING: 3 Baldus, Herbert Curt
Nimuendaju, 1883-1945 American Anthropologist 1946 Vol.
48: 238-243 This obituary was
written about the ethnologist Curt Nimuendaju, whose major studies
included the Brazilian aborigines. Nimuendaju always took risks for the love
of science, which he considered to be one of his duties. He loved to live among the Indians and thought
of himself as a part of their culture. From 1905-1939 he was very much a part of
the culture of the Indians by living among them to study or to participate
in archaeological explorations. The name Nimuendaju
was given to Curt in 1906, after the first year of his studies, by
the Apapocuva-Guarani, and he became a citizen of Baldus writes that
his work brought him happy and sad moments, but the strength he used
throughout his career made him ‘perhaps the greatest Indianista of
all time.’ He writes about Curt
as if he were a friend that he respected. He
also gives examples of when he had direct communication with Curt through
letters about his studies and experiences, which included Nimuendaju’s
interpretation of his life story. CLARITY: 5 MELISSA MOORE Bennett, John W. An Interpretation of the Scope and Implications of Social Scientific Research in Human Subsistence. American Anthropologist 1946 Vol.48(24):553-571. John W. Bennett strives to address the varying scientific approaches that were taken in a study of food habits and subsistence. Bennett directs his attention to political implications, the application of human affairs, and problem areas that were encountered during the study. Bennett set forth to classify the scientific approaches to food and subsistence, using categories such as theoretical, practical, applied, or empirical. Within each category there was a list of anthropologists who had performed the research, as well as the names of books they had written on their accounts. Then, for each category, Bennett gave examples of questions used in the study and identified the problems that accompanied the questions. By using these categories as a foundation, Bennett tried to define food habits as "a separate corner of reality" (pg.554) and felt that it should even become its own field of study. He believed this because food habits, such as preferences, techniques, and buying habits are constantly changing and are never static. Bennett strove to identify a pattern to this change through a study the political implications and human affairs regarding food habits. Although the article was thorough, it failed to clearly define which type of research belonged in each category. Referring to work done by previous researchers, as well as constantly straying from his topic, ultimately made Bennett’s article hard to follow. In the end, I am left perplexed as to what information was part of Bennett’s study, and what parts were references to other studies, and whether there is a pattern to food habits. CLARITY RANKING: 2 Bennett, Wendell C. Philip Ainsworth Means, 1892-1944. American Anthropologist January - March, 1946 Vol.48(14):234-237. In his article,
Wendell C. Bennett wrote an obituary for Philip Ainsworth Means. The
life and career of this influential archaeologist were described in
great detail. After Means obtained a Master of Arts from Means demonstrated
his own unique approach to chronology. His dates were based roughly
on the presence of artistic developments as well as known universal
art trends. Over time, this interest in art and art styles was applied
to Peruvian archaeology through the analysis of textile weaving. Ancient
Civilizations of the Andes was the first volume of a proposed trilogy
about Peruvian history. Fall of the Inca Empire was the following
volume, but unfortunately, the set was never finished as Means’ interests
slowly began to shift to other topics. A book on the discovery of Wendell C. Bennett stated that with Means’ death in 1944, "Americanists, historians and archaeologists alike have lost one of their leading scholars." Means had many great contributions to history as well as archaeology. CLARITY RANKING: 5 .gif){kind=small} Bennett, Wendell. Philip Ainsworth Means, 1892-1944. American Anthropologist 1946. Vol. 48:234-237 Phillip Ainsworth
Means was both historian and archaeologist. The geographical focus
of his studies was CLARITY RANKING:
5 Bidney, David. The Concept of Cultural Crisis. American Anthropologist 1946 Vol.48(23)534-50. Bidney begins with a brief discussion of the concept of culture, which he defines as "the process and product of the cultivation of the potentialities of human nature and the natural environment for the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and aspirations" (535). He then draws a distinction between natural crises, those beyond human control, and cultural crises, resulting from a dysfunction within a given culture itself. Natural crises tend to be uniting forces; cultural crises tend to do the opposite. The basic social problem of our time, Bidney claims, is finding a way to obviate cultural conflicts by producing that same sense of alliance between peoples that natural crises tend to create. In offering his own "solution" to this problem, Bidney further distinguishes between two types of cultural crises, survival and axiological. The former involves the preservation of life; the latter involves transformations in the given value systems of a society. Bidney emphasizes the various ways in which the two are fundamentally related, one scarcely able to exist without the other. As he claims, people are willing to sacrifice their own existence in defense of their culture – for one’s "cultural self". With this, he goes on to refute the naturalistic theory of cultural evolution (which holds that survival values are prior to axiological ones), and further discusses various modes of cultural transformation. Modes of transformation, Bidney adds, will depend upon the culture; attitudes towards change differ markedly from society to society. He insists, however, that change must occur – competing cultural worlds should cease to exist for the benefit of a universal, mutual welfare for all. Somewhat of a dreamer, Bidney envisioned the future as a peaceful utopia, hoping that societies would find alternative solutions to war. We have yet to see. Nevertheless, I found his article engaging and easy to read, concise, and insightful. CLARITY RANKING: 5 Bidney, David. The Concept of Cultural Crisis. American Anthropologist. 1946 Vol. 48: 534-552. In this "age
of world crises," David Bidney believes that resources of human
knowledge should be used to indicate "directions of resolution." Both
Idealists and Materialists have tended toward cultural fatalism (regarding
cultural crises as inevitable phenomena) by disregarding human agents
as the primary determining factor of cultural events, relegating ideals,
institutions, and technology to the superorganic state. A polar concept
of culture, however, stands in opposition to this superorganic
theory by emphasizing the equal potential for both human nature and
the natural environment to meet basic psychological needs. The apparent
theoretical conflict between Idealists and Materialists can be resolved
through a polar concept of culture, which takes the reciprocal influence
of ideas and economics into account. Bidney uses several
conceptions of crises to construct his argument. He describes natural
crises (earthquakes, famine) as uniting forces, while cultural
crises (war, industrial strife) tend to divide humans into conflicting
groups but are unstable conditions since crises do not maintain societies.
Cultural crises are further delineated into theoretical and practical
crises; theoretical crises involve scientific and religious
ideas, while practical crises involve a break in routine cultural
behavior. While it may happen more slowly in "native societies" than
in more Westernized ones, cultural change is the process by which cultural
crises, theoretical or practical, are produced, leading to "cultural
invention or acculturation" (or, all too often, deculturation). Bidney concludes
by arguing that a sense of perpetual crises is most dependent on one's
theory of social values. The relativistic, positivistic doctrine that
cultural crises are inevitable because there is little hope of reconciling
opposing values, coupled with "the psychological fact that men
are drawn together more by fear of some crisis…than by pure love of
the universal, ideal truth," reinforces a perpetual crisis
complex which creates the grounds for world wars. In order to overcome
this complex and the threat of nuclear annihilation, these crises must
be understood, and people must be willing to forego them in order "to
participate in one intelligible world of primary, universal values." CLARITY RANKING:
4 Carter, George. Origins Of American Indian Agriculture. American Anthropologist January-March, 1946 Vol. 48(1): 1-19. The paper written by George Carter involved the study of three species of plant. The main focus in the paper is on the origin of these plants and how and where they developed in other countries. The paper includes the work of several researchers. The author admits that the knowledge of this topic is limited, however, with time he and many of the researchers, Valilov, Mangelsdorf, Reeves, Catler, Anderson, Cameron, Dr. Sauer, DeCandolle, ect, will better know about the origin and diffusion of American agriculture. The three species
of plant discussed in the paper include corn, beans, and squash. These
three plants are the foundation of the American Indians agriculture.
In addition, these plants also played a role in the cultural history
of The origin of the three plant species, were determined by separate factors. In determining the origin, of corn, the author used genetics to support the theories. Mangelsdorf and Reeves used work of chromosomes as genetic evidence. They compared and contrasted different types of corn from different areas. Also involved was how the form or characteristic of corn changed from one place to another depending on factors such as climate. The author compared corn to races of mankind. There is different genetic value placed on different categories, and different characteristics and variation of each race. Such as leaf type, tassel characters, root type and kernel. The genetic value given could be between hairy leaves, slightly hairy, or no hair at all. The origin of the bean is determined mainly by climate of area, or environment, and slightly by cultural relations and relation to wild forms. A Swiss plant geographer, by the name of DeCandolle, discovered the origin of the bean. The species of squash and pumpkins were defined on the foundation of mutual sterility. By finding the origins of agriculture it gives us information about our human cultural processes, where the centers of early economic and intellectual advance and diffusion measured by the spread of certain plants. CLARITY RANKING: 3. Carter, George F. Origins of American Indian Agriculture. American Anthropologist. 1946 Vol. 48:1-21. George F. Carter
writes of the information gathered about origins of agriculture in Eisley, Loren. The
Fire-Drive And The Extinction Of The Terminal Pleistocene Fauna. American
Anthropologist January- March 1946 Vol.48(1):54-59. Loren Eisley’s article
challenges the hypothesis of Carl Sauer, which states that the Pleistocene
mega-fauna went extinct because of the widespread use of fire-drives
by early man in Eisley first argues
against Sauer’s main point that the Pleistocene disappearance of the
largest animals seems to correspond to the time of arrival of human
hunters in Eisley contends
that no single explanation for the massive Pleistocene extinction event
is likely to exist. It is quite probable that mankind only played a
small role in the dramatic termination of species during this epoch.
Instead, he believes that a variety of factors including climatic change
and epidemic disease may have been important in the widespread disappearance
of the great variety of life-forms that occurred during the Pleistocene. CLARITY RANKING:
5 Ekholm, Gordon
F. The Probable Use of Mexican
Stone Yokes. American Anthropologist. January-March, 1946 Vol. 48(14): 593-606. In Mesoamerican
prehistory, the ball game is a controversial topic for speculation
by anthropologists, archaeologists, and historians. Surrounding this issue is the long disputed
purposes of the stone yoke, mainly due do the “curious though definite
shape.” Based on existing archaeological evidence
available at the time of publication, Gordon F. Ekholm attempts to
demonstrate the likely possibility that stone yokes found at Mesoamerican
prehistory sites were worn around the waist. In
discussing his argument, Ekholm notes that there are other problematic
components to this issue, such as the symbolic nature of the carved
designs found on the stone yokes, as well as inconsistencies in distribution
and chronological factors within the context of widely held positions
in Mesoamerican prehistory. Most stone yokes
are U-shaped in form, although there are also examples of oval-shaped
yokes with a straight bar across one end. The first form is referred to as “open”,
while the second is “closed”. These
objects have been embraced more recently as prized art objects, largely
due to their intricately carved designs in addition to the fine quality
of the stone used, usually diorite, or basalt. A
major reason contributing to this debate is the fact that although
there are several hundred stone yokes in various collections, very
few have documentation that explain the in-situ context, resulting
in lack of data which could aid in resolving this issue. Ekholm points out
that there are other widely held notions on the function of the stone
yolk. One theory is that they
were used in ritualistic human sacrifice, where upon the object was
placed on the victim’s neck in order to render them unconscious. Another idea is that the stone yokes functioned
as an offering in part of the burial ritual of a high-status individual. This
position is based on a particular grave excavation where a skeleton
was found with an open yoke placed around the skull. However,
the author refutes this theory since many objects are found in burials
with little or no bearing on the actual intended purposes. It is due to these other proposed ideas of
stone yoke function, that Ekholm has focused on seeking a much more
logical and plausible explanation which can be backed by archaeological
findings such as pottery figurines, and stone relief carvings. Aside form his detailed
and descriptive analysis of several reliefs from ball-court markers
in Mayan areas of Cancuen, Laguna Peridia, Lubaatun, Piedras Negras,
and Chinkultic, Ekholm’s argument weighs heavily upon the consistency
of stone yoke measurements, which never seem to deviate from a standard
width of between six and three-eighths to seven and three-fourth inches. Such a striking uniformity suggests an implication
of a specific design for the purpose of function in which there would
be a need for “only a limited range in size”. Such
evidence also counter-argues another suggestion by others that stone
yokes were merely symbolic forms represented in clay sculptures, in
which case, one would expect to find much more size variation. Ekholm contends
that through various sources, which he had described in this article,
in addition to empirical data he has provided, one could postulate
that the stone yoke origin lies within the context of an evolution
as a “form of a belt which was used in playing ball”. As a final note, he stresses the importance
of further analysis and in-depth investigations into the matter, and
hopes that discussing his position will act as a stimulus and incite
more advances in the field. CLARITY RANKING:
5 KERRI KINOSHITA This article is
a rather disjointed collection of notes on an international mission
to the The article is formatted
in a number of ways, reading at times like a journal entry, at other
times like notebook recordings, lists, meeting minutes, a travel guide,
a departmental report and a newspaper article. Faculty lists, student
enrolment figures, expeditions, publications, and war damage and casualties
were listed for various institutions in the It is interesting
to consider the historical context of this meeting. It took place barely
a month after Germany’s unconditional surrender on May 7, and just
before the Iron Curtain came down between CLARITY RANKING: 4 Henry Field relates
his experiences attending the 220th Jubilee Session of the Only a brief summery
is given of the meeting itself. Field prefers to give accountings of
the museum holdings. Although also presented in a list format, more
detail is provided in this second half of the paper. Field does take
time out to critique Soviet display methods, citing them as cluttered
and poorly labeled. He reports very little damage to the collections
from German bombing. Field gives a quick summary of the Chinese and
Turkish artifacts housed in the CLARITY RANKING:
3 Goodman, Mary Ellen. Evidence Concerning The Genesis Of Interracial Attitudes. American Anthropologist, 1946 Vol. 48(28): 624-630. In her article on interracial attitudes, Mary Ellen Goodman examined the personal awareness of race in children as well as the social and cultural implications of race on a child of both White and Negro ethnicity. Goodman expressed the importance of using young children in her tests because adults are biased. As well, most young children are not explicitly aware of the socio-cultural assumptions that are made when dealing with race. Goodman’s investigation begins with a number of different tests on children ranging in age and race. From many of the test results, Goodman concluded that overall the Negro and White samples both showed more of a preference towards being a white person as opposed to any other race. Goodman also interpreted the Negro sample to be more introspective and racially aware, thus implying the socio-cultural implications of not being Caucasian. Goodman is particular in mentioning that while the results of these tests can be explained in a cultural context, it is also important to note that the personality of the individual test subject’s play a key role. Goodman was also very careful to note that the tests and conclusions in her article are only hypothesis and cannot be interpreted as absolute truth. Mary Ellen Goodman conveys to the reader in this article that children develop sentiments about interracial awareness and their own ethnic background at an early age. These sentiments usually occur through the influence of the society they live in. Goodman tried to make clear how the children identify themselves with their race and also the cultural importance of doing so. Towards the end of the article Goodman explained the limitations of this research and that the study of interracial awareness is a very complex issue with many uncertainties. CLARITY RANKING: 3 Goodman, Mary Ellen. Evidence Concerning the Genesis of Interracial Attitudes. American Anthropologist 1946 Vol.48:624-630. This study was undertaken
to investigate the transmission of racial attitudes and identity. "An
investigation of the dynamics of attitude transmission would thus appear
to be one of the potentially rewarding lines of attack upon both the
theoretical and practical problems of race relations." The examination
took place in Ruggles Street Nursery School of Boston. Twenty-Seven
children were studies for seven months, fifteen blacks and twelve whites.
A detailed diary was kept of the children’s play activities for two
and a half months, and sporadically thereafter. After the first two
and a half months the children were studied individually. None of the
children possessed true racial attitudes, but all had at least some
concept of their racial identity. The black children were more aware
of the major role race played in society, resulting in poor personality
integration within society. The children of the age three to four and
a half were in the process of becoming aware of the differences between
races and how society reacts to the differences. The awareness was
evident because more than half the children identified themselves with
dolls that matched their own race. The fact that both black and white
children perceived the white dolls as prettier goes to demonstrate
that the children were aware of the implications of race. The fact
that some children rejected the idea of hospitality between the races,
more than a third of the children used race identifying language of
their own volition and occasionally children segregated the dolls also
demonstrates their awareness of race. The following quote from one
of the black children aptly demonstrates the disturbing problem of
race, "Why is it that some people are brown and some are white?" This
study of attitudes employed the intensive observation of socialization-in-process.
The author presented the data she collected from interviewing the children
and offered her apparent and logical conclusion. CLARITY RANKING:
4 NICA CLARK The Hawley, In this article Hawley discusses the role of the Catholic faith amongst the people of the eastern and western pueblos, and the reasons behind either their acceptance or rejection of the religion. The people of the eastern pueblos accepted and integrated Catholicism into their religious lives. The traditional Catholic rituals and practices may have become drastically altered, but the eastern pueblos still profess to be Catholic, unlike the western pueblos who arduously rejected Catholicism from the beginning, even going so far as to obliterate the Awatobi village when its people showed signs of acculturation. Hawley discredits the notion that the eastern pueblos’ acceptance of the new faith was wholly due to their close historical and geographical ties with the Catholic Spaniards, suggesting that internal social and political structure played a larger role. She discusses how Catholic beliefs and customs have affected the social and political organization of Spanish American villages, and then compares this to the generalized characteristics of the eastern and western pueblos. In the eastern pueblos, society is structured patrilinially, just as the Catholic faith is structured around belief in a father figure. Hawley suggests that the eastern pueblo people’s traditionally patriarchal social structure facilitated their acceptance of the visiting priests as "padres" who were directed by a higher power, the Pope, who received his dictates from God, the highest Father. In contrast, the western pueblos are structured on a more matrilineal basis, in which it is the responsibility of the mother’s brother to discipline a child, and in which a child’s sense of stability comes from the mother and her relatives. Leaders acquire their positions through their maternal lineage. This strong emphasis on matrilineity, Hawley suggests, likely made acceptance of the patrilineal Catholic faith difficult. Politically speaking, in the eastern pueblos, government is organized centrally, with a leader who holds a high degree of power, unlike the western pueblo’s decentralized government organization. Hawley suggests that these differences affected the acceptance of Catholicism as a part of the pueblo’s religious life, noting that the concepts of authority and group welfare that underlie the faith are similar to the eastern pueblo religion. In addition, similarities in ritual practice such as constructing images of saints (as the eastern pueblos did of katcinas) and the use of an altar eased acceptance of the Catholic faith by making it appear similar enough to the traditional religion that the people continued to acknowledge it as part of their religious system even after the outside pressure of the missionaries had ceased. Hawley suggests that the distance between the western pueblos and the core of Spanish power did play a role in the western pueblos being able to completely resist Catholicism, however she states that internal patterns of organization ultimately made the difference, as the people of the eastern pueblos were predisposed by their social and political organization towards easier acceptance of the similarly structured Catholic faith. CLARITY RANKING: 5 Hilger, Sister
M. Inez. Notes on This article examines
aspects of the American Cheyenne culture with respect to child rearing
and child raising. Inez Hilger presented explicit details of Hilger presented
her information in a very relativistic manner. The article allows the
reader to develop a greater appreciation for the CLARITY RANKING: 4 Junek, W. Oscar. What is the Total Pattern of Our Western Civilization? Some Preliminary Observations. American Anthropologist September 1946 Vol. 48 (19):397-405. Junek addresses the issue of how to index the culture of modern western civilization. He notes that to do this would require considerable indexing. Thus he resorts to drawing an outline of ‘modern western culture’ to pinpoint some of its major aspects. He argues that identifying some of the mainstays in American culture provides a guideline for comparing other cultures to modern western culture, and he comes up with sixteen complexes that are fundamental in American culture. Junek argues that overall views are not only useful for comparison with other cultures but also for the purposes for enabling anthropologists to select complexes applicable to other cultures. The reason Junek finds it necessary to find the best fit for other cultures is so that when the gradual process of acculturation occurs the anthropologist should be aware of what effect his own culture will have on the culture of others. Thus, Junek argues that a study of the Western pattern of culture is necessary, since it will tell what parts of American culture are best suited for which culture, thus help to prevent disorganization of culture and personality when acculturation occurs. While many have attempted to characterize culture, none has done this for American’s culture. Junek argues that it is not enough to say that other cultures differ from our own, which implies that ‘our’ [American] culture is self-explanatory. Instead, we must fully understand our own culture before we can compare others to it. Junek then notes that because it is very difficult to make a complete index of a culture, it is necessary to note the mainstays of the culture and so establish a frame of reference for comparison to other cultures. From this, Junek goes about drawing conclusions as to what should be deemed as mainstays of American culture. He identifies sixteen complexes that he argues are crucial when comparing a culture to modern western culture. This provides a standardized way for specifying how a culture differs from American culture and how modern western culture affects other cultures. CLARITY RANKING: 5 Lovell Loughborough, John. Notes on the Trepanation of Prehistoric Crania. American Anthropologist, November 1946 vol. 48 (21): 416-422. John Lovell Loughborough reexamined the ancient practice of trepanation. The process of trepanation involves cutting a round piece of bone out of the skull of a live person. Loughborough’s thesis was to review the main features of the practice of trepanation and to critique the few proposed hypotheses of true trepanning. There were very few works published on this topic in proportion to the occurrences of this practice, which was a challenge for Loughborough. He examined factors of geography and culture and highlighted superstitions, to guide his analysis of trepanation. The author wished to distinguish "true trepanation" from other types, ie: those events that may have been due to a cover up of a fracture. Trepanation was used within cultures that have no geographic ties and the locations of trepanned skulls had no definite pattern. Loughborough’s conclusion was that this procedure was an "independent invention" (Pg.421), even though some original cases may have developed out of "accidents to the skulls of hunters" (Pg.418). In a cultural sense, trepanning had no bias. It had occurred in both "backward cultures and advanced cultures" (Pg.417. Loughborough’s meaning of ‘backward’ was ‘less advanced technologically’). The author described the distribution of trepanation as a paradox, affected by geography and culture. The critique of the hypotheses dealt directly with the identification of true trepanning. Researchers Broca and Keith, were included in Loughborough’s examination. In the opinion of Broca, trepanation was used to cover up previous fractures, in which case, the procedure probably took place after death. In contrast, Keith, believed this practice had been a result of superstition as well as trauma. In support of the superstition hypothesis it was possible that trepanation occurred when the person was still alive. Loughborough’s goal was to reexamine previous hypotheses and provide a critique. His article served this purpose despite the lack of previously written literature, which might have been helpful in his thesis. Loughborough used some medical terms that a reader might have to look up in order to gain a better understanding of what he was trying to convey. The thesis could have been clearer if the terms were defined. Loughborough’s critique was well written, but, aimed more towards his colleagues than an average reader. CLARITY RANKING: 3 Lowie, Robert H. Evolution in American Anthropology: A Reply to Leslie White American Anthropologist 1946 (48):223- The article is part
of a long running dispute between two anthropologists. In this article
Lowie is defending a previous article in which Leslie White criticized
him for characterizing Morgans theory of cultural evolution falsely.
Lowie is mostly responding to comments made by White and not putting
forward new arguments. The point of contention as Lowie puts it in
his article is whether or not there is a transcendental pattern for
evolutionary progress, Lowie believes so, White disagrees. The debate
then is obviously a very modernist one. Lowies arguments in his article are exclusively aimed at the inaccuracies made by Whites criticism of him in a previous issue of American Anthropologist. Lowie charges that Boas was not anti-evolutionist in the same sense that White portrays him, nor were Morgan and Tyler evolutionists as White portrays them. What Lowie does claim is that Boasians are not anti-evolutionists as White argues but rather that they attacked Morgan's evolutionary scheme, not the general theory of Cultural Evolution itself. IN the same sense Morgan and Tyler were not evolutionists as White would have them seen. Lowie appeals to the authority of other prominent anthropologists of the time to back up his own point, such as Radcliffe-Brown, Radin, and Malinowski. He also appeals to the wide ranging support from many sectors of evolutionary theory, such as radicals and religious intellectuals. These appeals are meant to show how these ideas are "common sense" and widely accepted and supported by the majority of the intellectual community. CLARITY RANKING: 3 NO Lowie, Robert H. Evolution in Cultural Anthropology: A Reply to Leslie White. American Anthropologist. 1946 Vol. 48:223-232. In this article,
Robert Lowie responds to three articles by Leslie White, which previously
appeared in issues of American Anthropologist. Lowie asserts
that White is mistaken in his assumption that Lowie and other Boasians
are anti-evolutionists; in fact he argues that there is no "Boasian" sect
because students of Boas have often differed from him and from each
other. Additionally, he stresses the importance of the testing of evolutionary
generalizations by those that White terms "Boasians" as part
of the scientific process. Lowie includes five
sections in the article where he rebuts White’s conclusions. In the
first two sections, Lowie addresses the treatment of Lewis Morgan’s
work by himself and others, maintaining that Morgan has been praised
and questioned by both groups in a fair manner. The third section deals
with White’s accusation that Boas and his followers question the theory
of evolution. Lowie asserts that it is not evolution which Boas and
others attack, rather the evolutionary schemes of Morgan and others.
Lowie uses his fourth section to make the point that throughout the
history of science, men have always tested theories, to ground speculations
and make them scientific. In the fifth section Lowie dissects White’s
allegations regarding evolution and diffusion. Overall, the article
is a disjointed piece responding to specific arguments made by White. The claims Lowie
makes are supported by cited works in addition to his own clarification
of the issues at hand. Because of the personal interest present in
the arguments made, the piece is flavored by Lowie’s opinions and personal
claims. This article is written for a specific and specialized audience
of anthropologists, as many elements in the article are not defined
or clarified to a general reader’s understanding. CLARITY RANKING:
3 HEATHER LAW TALLANT The Meggers, Betty
J. Recent Trends in American Ethnology. American
Anthropologist. 1946 Vol. 48:176-214. In the article, Recent
Trends in American Ethnology, Betty Meggers investigates the
trends in anthropological writings of the early 20th century.
After collecting an extensive bibliography for this time period,
Meggers categorizes the collected works into general topics which
included psychology, acculturation, and community studies. In addition
to these three major topics, she identifies three minor trends: culture,
special phases of culture (law, education and economics) and influences
of the recent world crisis (WWII). Meggers first focuses
on the trend of psychology, the oldest of the three classified in this
article. She argues that psychology has grown as an area of focus in
the field of anthropology. Prior to 1930, Meggers claims that psychology
was thought of as a tool that would help anthropologists explain culture,
however, between 1934-1944 anthropologists have increasingly turned
to the view that the study of man will yield explanations of culture.
She adds that during this time there have been more cooperative enterprises
between psychologists and anthropologists. She also claims that anthropologists
who continue to study culture have been met with censure. Another major
trend in the anthropological writings of this time is the topic of
acculturation. She states that as with psychology, acculturationists
of the 1930’s and 1940’s are interested in how cultural disorganization
affects the individual whereas earlier acculturationists studied changes
on the level of culture. The third specific trend Meggers highlights
in the anthropological writings of the 1930’s and 1940’s is the shift
from researching "primitive peoples" to the studying of modern
communities. She states that this movement, beginning in the 1930’s,
was a new and popular topic in the field. Also stated as minor
trends are culture, special phases of culture such as law education
and economics, and influences of World War II. The first two trends
listed above (culture and special phases of culture) are briefly mentioned
by Meggers. She claims that the abandonment of traditional anthropological
work for government service and race supremacy questions are the two
influences of the world situation at the time. Meggers concludes that
anthropological work of the 1930’s and 1940’s is merely psychology
or sociology stating that culture has almost completely left the anthropological
dialogue. Meggers provides
a large quantity of cited material to back the claims she makes in
the article. Following the article, she includes the bibliography of
works which she used in her study. These are divided by subject and
listed according to year so that the reader can visually see the evidence
which Meggers uses to establish her argument. All main points therefore
are backed in the article by excerpts from the works she has examined
as well as visually displayed in the bibliography. CLARITY RANKING:
4 HEATHER LAW TALLANT The Merrill, E. D. Further
Notes on Tobacco in In this article
E.D. Merrill expands on previous research he completed concerning the
origin of tobacco use in CLARITY RANKING:
4 Opler, Morris and Hashima Seido. The Rice Goddess and the Fox in Japanese Religion and Folk Practice. American Anthropologist 1946 Vol.48(4):43-52. Many scholars have written on numerous and diverse subjects of interest, but not all have been able to completely and clearly cover these areas of interest. In other words, there are many topics, which have repeatedly been written on but yet, remain unclear and incompletely covered. Opler is faced with this problem when trying to understand the cult of Inari and the fox. He is faced with many works on this subject but none clearly and totally explain this cult and its religious beliefs. Nevertheless Opler sets out to find a way to entirely cover and evidently describe the cult of the rice goddess, Inari, and the fox. Opler uses the incompleteness
of works on the cult of Inari and the fox in order to suggest a new
approach of investigation that would provide the reader with more complete
and understandable information. It was clear that in order to fully
cover a topic, such as the cult of Inari, the author should have to
find some exposure to it. This exposure would make Opler’s approach
more authentic and therefore more complete. According to Opler, using
an American citizen who had emigrated from Opler makes his work very understandable by clearly presenting his argument, and setting up the picture for Hashima’s authentic explanation. Hashima’s narration about the many stories and experiences to which he was exposed was also very clear and provided great insight about the cult of Inari and its deity the fox. There was not any complex language usage from any one of the authors, which made their work very clear. Overall the work of Opler and Hashima was very comprehensible in its nature. CLARITY RANKING: 5 Price, Maurice T. Differentiating myth, legend, and history in ancient Chinese culture. American Anthropologist 1946 Vol. 48: 31-42 The understanding
of Price examined three steps in the construction of Chinese history; how legend and fact became confused, how those interpretations became accepted, and the scrutiny that those interpretations were beginning to come under. For the first step, Price relied heavily on a historical critic from the 18th century, Ts'ui Shu. Shu recognised that increasingly later generations were coming to believe in increasingly earlier personages. Price examined various emperors and the myths surrounding them. To explain how these interpretations became legitimised, Price paralleled Chinese culture with Jewish, Christian, and Greek traditions. Finally, Price talked of the resurgence of the interest in re-dating and re-evaluating parts of ancient Chinese tradition. Price illustrated the re-evaluation process with an example about the author Lao Tzu. This article is
a good examination of the construction of history from an anthropological
perspective. The extreme ancientness of the personages, ideas, and
events, and the autonomy of ancient CLARITY RANKING: 3 Price, Maurice T. Differentiating Myth, Legend, and History in Ancient Chinese Culture. American Anthropologist. 1946 Vol. 48: 31-42. Maurice T. Price,
in his article Differentiating Myth, Legend, and History in Ancient
Chinese Culture, emphasizes the importance of recognizing the integration
of mythology, legend, and history throughout Chinese culture. Price
examines how mythological stories and figures have become not only
a basis for Chinese legend and folklore, but are used in the context
of historical fact. These figures and stories are looked to as a basis
for modern policy, politics, and social action. Price points out
that Chinese and American scholars quote ancient Chinese writings,
such as Confucian Classics, which contain mythical figures, as fact
to explain contemporary Chinese society. The myths become so intertwined
with provable historical figures that it becomes impossible to separate
the two, the stories and figures are passed down through tradition,
thereby influencing the factual aspects of Chinese culture and history. Price notes that
although some of the legends contain fantastic elements, such as an
Emperor who has the head of a bull, this does not automatically nullify
the social and or cultural sentiments expressed in the story. Instead
the emphasis is placed on the overall point behind the legend rather
than the individual traits or characteristics of the components of
the story. Price also notes
that this blending of myth and history is not a characteristic unique
to Chinese culture, that indeed in nearly every ancient literate culture
the lines between history and folklore are somewhat blurred. The influence
of religion, be it, Christian, Muslim, Hindu, or Buddhist, have influenced
the way the people of that culture view historical facts. It is therefore
important to consider this influence when examining any cultural principles
based on history and tradition of a society. CLARITY RANKING:
4 Ransom, Jay Ellis. Aleut
Natural-Food Economy. American Anthropologist October-December
1946 Vol.48 (4 part1):607-623. Fishing and hunting
of marine-life was the primary economic activity for the Fox Island
Aleuts before the period of first contact with Russian culture, and
continue to be a major economic activity after their acculturation.
Jay Ransom’s article describes the Aleut food economy operating in
1936-37. The original practices and techniques of hunting and gathering
food and the techniques of preparing food have been drastically changed
by a hundred and fifty years of contact with Russians, other Europeans
and Americans. The near extinction of a number of formerly valued food
animals has dramatically altered the harvest of fish and wildlife foods
by the Aleuts. Ransom describes
in some degree of detail the harvest of fish, shellfish, seals, whales,
migratory birds, and vegetal foods. He also notes techniques of butchering
and distributing game meat, and the preparation of foods such as shellfish,
fish, sea mammals, bird eggs and edible plants. Ransom discusses Aleut
hunting ceremonies that are no longer performed today. The Aleut diet
has been greatly influenced by the introduction of Russian staples
such as wheat flour, sugar, tea, alcohol, tinned milk and tinned meat.
It appears that the change in diet has decreased the overall health
of the Aleut, including an increasing prevalence of dental caries due
to their high sugar consumption. Ransom concludes his article with
a description of Japanese enslavement of Attu Island Aleuts during
World War II. American forces evacuated Aleuts from other islands to
mainland CLARITY RANKING:
5 Smith, Marian
W. Village Notes from Smith introduces
the reader to the project she undertook in 1944-45 with her students
from Part one showed the bonds of seven communities, which consist of a mixture of Moslems and Hindus. Most people were agriculturists, with rice being the predominant crop. Transportation consisted of roads, rail, and water travel (especially in the rainy season). The economy was centered in a village market where they used cash, with no bartering. At times land could be a source of conflict, but mostly the lands of the villages were communal. In addition to land, economic and social ties bound people. Jobs between the different religious groups were not limited. Moslems and Hindu’s could often perform the same task. There was also a "loosely knit" government, where participation was limited to adult males. The second part was intended to provide information as to where scarce resources existed. Sketch maps of the houses and complexes were provided. As well, Abdul Rahaman provided details of his family’s unit, upon which the sketches are based. The houses were mostly constructed with raised floors and thatched or iron roofs. The sleeping quarters of people are detailed (married vs. single, males vs. females), as was the location of animal sheds and the watering pool. Part three showed how family organization tied each household with the other villages. Males were responsible for the group’s co-existence and property handling. Marriage was mostly, but not exclusively, exogamous. Immediate sibling marriages were forbidden although cousin marriages were an acceptable way of keeping wealth in the family. Girls were given property settlements upon marriage to "safeguard" their position in their marriages. Village dynamics had women deferring to men, and the young deferring to the old. Fuller’s descriptions of basic family relationships are used. The article ends with the economic and social ties in the functioning of the seven villages. In addition to being tied by topographical features, the villagers were also economical connected by the central market. Marriage provided a social bond. Smith points out that religious relationships with the broader world had not been a topic of the research, but would be a good area for future study. This research by Marian Smith sheds light on a subject that is foreign to many North Americans, even by today’s standards. Her descriptions of life in that Bengali village in the 1940’s leaves the reader curious to see how life may have changed in the sixty-plus years since it was first featured. Her use of maps and diagrams was helpful in getting a clearer vision of the villages. This was an informative and interesting article to review. CLARITY RANKING: 4 Smith, Marian
W. Village Notes From Marian W. Smith’s
article, Village Notes from Bengal, presents first hand knowledge
concerning the physical, social and economic aspects of a seven-village
unit in northeastern The seven villages
discussed are predominantly agricultural, surrounding a market which
serves as the economic hub of the region and the basis for a money
economy. However, the lives of the villagers are not centered here
but instead within the confines of their family compounds and in their
farming lifestyle. The number of family compounds within each village
varies greatly, the total population estimated to be around 45,000. The author goes
to great length to accurately portray life within a compound. The informant
diagrams a typical layout of a compound, giving meticulous detail of
each area and what occurs there. The author then shifts her focus to
the religion-based family relationships found within compounds dictating
the behavior and productivity of each individual. In general, the younger
are expected to be subdued among elders and women are to be subordinate
to men, spending the vast majority of their lives within the confines
of the compound. The oldest active male assumes responsibility for
all members of the family and sees to it that the family carries out
its duties with little outside interference. The informant presents
the image that each village is largely self-reliant. However, the region
is the recipient of British influence (i.e. taxation and land ownership),
and when coupled with aspects of religious and social life, a vital
interdependence among the seven villages is maintained. Despite religious
differences among the Moslem and Hindu inhabitants, emphasis upon occupation
outweighs that of religion, enabling a more closely knit community
than in other regions of The author stresses
the importance of careful organization of the breadth of knowledge
that a first hand informant maintains. This information, presented
clearly and without the addition of inconclusive data, provides readers
with a substantiated look at the lives of Bengali villagers. CLARITY RANKING:
5 Speck, Frank
G. A Report of the Tribal Boundaries and
Hunting Areas of the Malecite Indian of Frank Speck uses
his article to do exactly as the title suggests, report on the boundaries
of families of the Malecite Indians. He also describes the state of
this native tribe before and after 1870-1880, and the effects the Europeans
settlers had on them. This was a time of great change in The Malecite Indian’s way of life was drastically changed, and not positively, between 1870 and 1880. The facts that Speck gathered to support his conclusions on life for the natives are reported by a group of Natives over 30 years after all these changes took place. They reported that prior to 1870, the Malecite were primarily hunters and trappers who relied on the land and big game, mostly moose and caribou for the food needs, and after 1880, they were farm-hands and guides dependant on employment from white settlers. After watching the Europeans profit from the slaughter of animals, the Natives didn’t want to miss out on the money, so they began killing their own way of life. They were forced to turn to agriculture when all the animals were gone. The Malecite families previously had massive amounts of wilderness to hunt on and to leave to their sons. According to the group of elderly men reporting, they had nothing to leave for their sons, after all the changes. Speck argues that due to these changes, the Malecite’s way of life was permanently and negatively changed, due to the European settlers. His arguments are made much more convincing when told through the Natives men, about their lives. CLARITY RANKING: 2 Taylor, Douglas. Notes on the Star Lore of the Caribbees. American Anthropologist 1946 Vol. 48: 215-222 He introduced his
account by briefly criticizing Walter Roth who had written a book on
the Arawaks and the Caribs thirty years earlier, but had even not visited
the latter. According to There are also minor
details on several other celestials including the sun, the planets,
a constellation called Hannao (a type of fish) which includes the star
Altair, the constellation of the barbecue which is the Taylor's artical includes in significant detail, myths of the moon’s human origins, a brief account of ritual activity during a lunar eclipse, a narrative about Bakamo and one of Trois Rois (La Poussiniere's brother / Orion's Belt), and this is an important contribution. He noted that many of the stars and constellations were associated with weather and types of animals. He concluded that the Carib used the stars as a way of predicting the weather and knowing what fish and game they could expect to be plentiful. He further speculated that there had once been stars and constellations to indicate the ideal time of year for planting particular crops as well. At the time of publication however, it was said that while the warm weather meant that crops could be planted anytime (assuming adequate rainfall), it was the moon’s phases that dictated crop planting. A footnote indicates that ‘Due to unfortunate circumstances this article has not been proof read by the author.’ (p215) This is undoubtedly the reason for the lack of clarity in several portions of the article -- sometimes due to grammatical problems and sometimes due to a need for elaboration. Most of the article is reasonably easy to follow although knowledge of astronomy is an asset. CLARITY RANKING: 3 J Taylor, Douglas. Notes on the Star-Lore of the Caribees. American Anthropologist 1946 Vol.48: 215-222 CLARITY RANKING: 4 Taylor, Douglas. Notes on the Star Lore of the Caribbees. American Anthropologist. 1988. Vol. 48: 215-222. In this essay, Douglas
Taylor attempts to depict and explain the significance of constellations
according to the Caribbees. Over the years, this tribe has passed down
the lore of their ancestors. Over 10 different constellations are mentioned
in the essay, each with a special meaning. The sun and moon, the heron
and his canoe, and the crayfish are the constellations that are focused
primarily upon. The sun and moon
are a definite part each human’s life for obvious reasons. The Caribbees
called the sun and moon "hw’eyu" and "nunu". Both
stars are said to have been men ascending to the sky and assuming their
present appearance. Supposedly, the moon has an in depth story of a
girl whose brother was in love with her. When the public found this
out, he was so ridiculed that he withdrew to the sky, where you see
him today. I t seemed to be a widespread belief that certain phases
of the moon are the only suitable times for the performance of many
activities. These activities include ritual bathing, hunting, or fishing
particular species. The constellation
of the "heron and his canoe" is now only known to a few Caribs
who are almost unable to recall the legend. When the constellation
sinks below the horizon, they say the heron dives into the sea and
forms the "heron’s leap". I t was thought to bring heavy
rain and storms. According to legend, the heron’s favorite food was
easy prey that consisted of crabs and frogs that were accessible at
night. The crayfish, dependent
on the direction of it’s pinchers, indicates the calamity of the sea.
According to the author, when the crayfish is "un peu elevee" in
the morning, the sea is rough inshore and calm outside. This condition
may occur at any time of the year, but most commonly in April. The
tribe refers to this phenomenon as "rat d’maree" or "tidal
wave". They believe that a small sea beast causes the crayfish. The author states, " the
similarity of their (Caribbees) star legends with those of various
South American tribes points to a very old tradition, but it seems
highly probable that the tales were added to, amended, or forgotten
after migrations to suit new local conditions." "The Notes
on the Star Lore of the Caribbees" points to the fact that may
tribes have beliefs that are comparable, although during different
time frames. In general, the lore of the stars are formed according
to the weather. The sun and moon, the heron and his canoe, and the
crayfish are three examples of ancient tales. These tales provide us
today with imaginative, interesting stories of the way people think. CLARITY RANKING:
3 Taylor, Douglas. Notes
on the Star Lore of the Caribbees. American Anthropologist 1946
Vol.48:215-222. The main topic of
this article is the description of the star lore of the Caribs from Unfortunately, this
article was never proof read by the author. CLARITY RANKING:
3. Terry, R. J. Robert Bennett Bean, 1874-1944. American Anthropologist, 1946 Vol. 48 (7):70-74. This obituary traces
the life work of Professor Robert Bennett Bean, a distinguished anthropologist.
Dr. Bean died in From the years 1905-1907,
Dr. Bean was an instructor of anatomy at the In 1910, Dr. Bean was a professor of anatomy at Tulane. Here, he continued publishing results of investigations of the Phillippine Islanders. His was interested in the correlation between somatologic types and disease and also initiated studies on the weights of organs in relation to type, race, sex and age. In 1916, Dr. Bean headed the department of anatomy of the University of Virginia, returning to the state in which he was born. The twenty-six years he held the post was spent effecting progressive change on the medical institution. He made contributions to the subject of postnatal growth of the heart and formed ideas regarding human types and relation to disease. He wrote several papers concerning medical education and the teaching of anatomy. He also wrote two books, "Races of Man, " and "The Peopling if Virginia." Terry notes that Dr. Bean was an enthusiastic and stimulating teacher. He found Dr. Bean to be an informal and cordial man and yet, he possessed a degree of reserve and marked dignity. He also spent his time in support of several worthy endeavors outside his profession and was a fine example to the communities in which he lived in. The above obituary is a well written and detailed account of Dr. Robert Bennett Bean’s life as a researcher, anthropologist, writer and teacher. CLARITY RANKING: 4 CHIA YUEH JEAN University of Alberta (Heather Young Leslie) Terry, R. J. Robert Bennett Bean, 1874-1944. American Anthropologist 1946 Vol. 48:70-74 R.J. Terry attempts to establish the influence of Dr. Bean upon the fields in which he worked. Using biographical facts to support his evidence, Terry gives examples of Dr. Bean’s importance to the scientific community, in the areas of anthropology and human anatomy. Robert Bennett Bean lived from 1874-1944 and was educated at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Johns Hopkins Medical School. It was while attending Johns Hopkins that he became interested in morphology and anatomy. Dr. Bean also became assistant of anatomy after receiving his medical degree at this school. In 1904, Dr. Bean began research in an anthropological vein: comparing observations of the brain and the subclavian artery among African-Americans and whites. From 1905-1907,
Dr. Bean was professor of anatomy at the University of Michigan, where
he researched brain size of African-Americans. During the years of
1907-1910, he worked in Manila as director of the anatomical laboratory
in the Philippine Medical School. Here Dr. Bean wrote 17 works about
studies of Philippine racial types, including his Racial Anatomy
of the Philippine Islanders. Dr. Bean worked
as professor of anatomy at Tulane from 1910-1916 where he began looking
into the relationship between somatologic types and diseases. He also
started his studies on organ weights in regard to different types of
organs, race sex and age. This research was continued at the University
of Virginia, where Dr. Bean would spend the next 26 years and finish
his career. He helped spur on changes that allowed for the growth of
the excellent medical community still in existence in Charlottesville.
Also in Virginia, he looked into the issue of postnatal growth of the
heart and other organs. Late in his career, Dr. Bean wrote papers about
how race might relate to the occurrence of disease. In 1930 he began
an anthropological study of elderly Virginia citizens. He has been
regarded as an excellent teacher who had a broad understanding of anatomy
and anthropology and was known for his high standards in conducting
research. CLARITY RANKING:
5 ELIZA MUNROE University
of Georgia (Peter Brosius) Von Heine-Geldern, Robert. Research on Southeast Asia; Problems and Suggestions. American Anthropologist April-June, 1946 Vol.48(2):149-171. Heine-Geldern laments that Southeast Asia had much to be lost, things such as ethnology, linguistics, archaeology, and literature. Southeast Asia in the 1940’s was no different than any other anthropological region when it came to vanishing opportunities to investigate and record disappearing cultures. Such was the opinion of Robert Von Heine-Geldern, who asked what could be done to stop the disappearance of cultures? He felt that something had to be done and that in years previous to the article, too much anthropology had been done where the collection of data and facts was recorded by a local resident. Heine-Geldern argued that fieldwork executed by professional anthropologists and properly trained individuals, would ensure that cultures would live on for all time. Heine-Geldern believed that the best way to back up his argument (that without some kind of intervention by anthropologist, some cultures will just wither away and die), was to analyze previous tribes that have almost disappeared. One of the most important tribes in all of Southeast Asia, by point of view of anthropologists, would have been the Wa, a tribe whose way of life could give insight into the ways of many ancient tribes. The only information available on the Wa was a small report written in the late 1800’s, now complained Heine-Geldern, there almost gone. Languages also disappear such as those of the Ternatanese and the Tidorese, peoples who were very important in the history of Indonesia. Archaeological sites were also being destroyed, by way of war and post war developments throughout Southeast Asia. Lastly, one of the most easily destroyed parts of a culture was its literature: its stories and legends were, argued Heine-Geldern, one of the best indicators of how a society lived. Soon many of the cultures in and around Southeast Asia would meld into civilized society and no longer exist. If nothing was changed within the recording and documenting of these cultures, they would be lost forever. Ways to prevent such disappearances started with good old-fashioned fieldwork done by a professional anthropologist. Training locals to do surveys was also a good way to keep the flow of information coming from a tribe for years to come. This article is a classic call for cultural salvage. It provides much great detail, displayed very clearly. Its argument was well stated and the article was definitely to the point. CLARITY RANKING: 4 NATHAN CONNOR University of Alberta (Dr. Heather Young Leslie) White, Leslie A. Kroeber’s "Configurations of Culture Growth". American Anthropologist 1946 Vol.48:78-93. White reviews Alfred Kroeber’s article "Configurations of Culture Growth." Configurations was Kroeber’s attempt to make generalizations about cultures from details, primarily discovered by his former professor, Franz Boas. Unlike Boas (who White felt researched endlessly in hopes of discovering "the big answer"), Kroeber tried to be more deductive in his methodology. In the end though, as White points out, Kroeber could not get away from his passion for facts and thus, was unable to achieve his goal of proving the superiority of deductive research. Herein, White’s objective is to examine the difference between the inductive and deductive methods of study, whilst using the Boas-Kroeber dispute as a framework for their evaluation. Kroeber’s overall objective was to create an ethnology which "made sense," contrarily to Boas’ method which Kroeber called "jumbled and chaotic." His principal critique of his former professor was that Boas’ results could only list the facts but could not tell society the "why’s" behind them. To begin his work, Kroeber examined culture as a series of organized events which make up particular patterns. Then he determined that these patterns undergo ongoing growth and that the growth itself also forms particular patterns. Kroeber’s final step was to demonstrate the evolution behind these culture patterns: what he called their "configurations." White describes how Kroeber surveyed the development of a multitude of aspects pertaining to culture in order to do so. With the survey results, he answered a series of questions pertaining to the universality of culture across the world and around the scope of the term, culture, itself. This deductive method for viewing culture was very different from the inductive – the only one practiced by anthropologists up to the time of Kroeber’s publication. Until then, the Boasian technique was the leading methodology, with the ultimate premise that eventually, if one found every bit of information possible, the grand conclusion would unfold itself naturally. It was Kroeber’s belief that conclusions could be drawn from generalizations, and that not every single fact had to be discovered in order to do so. White examines Kroeber’s technique and compares it with the Boasian technique. He determines that although Kroeber gets back to the older and more anthropologically "culturological" method (which is, he says, more relevant than the new [at time of publication] "psychological" method), there remain several weaknesses with the piece. Most importantly, he infers that Kroeber was not able to make generalizations and, in White’s opinion, he was not able to do so because he used the deductive method. Thus, after careful examination and evaluation, White clearly supports the inductive method of Boas’, to the deductive method of Kroeber. CLARITY RANKING: 3 JENNIFER CONNOLLY University of Alberta (Heather Young Leslie) Wormington, H. M. Jesse Dade Figgins, 1867-1994. American Anthropologist 1946 Vol.48: 75-77. This article is a biography of the ornithologist, naturalist and archaeological pioneer, Jesse Dade Figgins, who passed away shortly prior to this publication. Mr. Figgins was important in the development of museum displays that, through the use of painted backgrounds, showed animals in their natural habitat. Later in his life, Mr. Figgins became interested in the archaeology of New World peopling, specifically the idea of early Americans being contemporary with long since extinct Pleistocene mega fauna. Mr. Figgins was one of the first archaeologists who supported the possibility of this contemporaneous relationship and sought proof for this theory, and others. The systematic photographic and data recording now used at archaeological sites was also used by Mr. Figgins to provide sceptics with satisfactory proof for his theories. Mr. Wormington paints a very flattering picture of a man who surely added to the world through his scientific endeavours. In his lengthy career, Jesse Dade Figgins gave immensely to many scientific fields and he is remembered with the respect he appears to have earned. This seems to be a very fitting memorial of a man well deserving of it. The author presents a very clear and concise biography of Mr. Figgins and the success he enjoyed throughout his life. CLARITY RANKING: 5 CURTIS F. CHRISTOPHER University of Alberta (Dr. Heather Young Leslie) Wormington, H. M. Jesse Dade Figgins, 1867-1944. American Anthropologist 1946 Vol. 48:75-77. H.M. Wormington
seeks in this article to demonstrate the importance of the work of
Jesse Dade Figgins. The author gives biographical information about
Mr. Figgins in an effort to prove how he influenced the fields in which
he worked. Mr. Figgins was born in Maryland, in 1867 and began his
career working in ornithology. His first position was at the United
States National Museum and from here he moved to the American Museum
of Natural History. There he created habitat displays with painted
backgrounds, which made him rather famous. In 1910, Mr. Figgins
became the Director of the Colorado Museum of Natural History. Here
he took care of administrative tasks, painted excellent exhibits and
also conducted research in ornithology, mammology and paleontology.
He became interested in archeology in 1926 with the discovery of chipped
stones during an excavation of an extinct species of bison. This led
Mr. Figgins to attempt to convince archeologists that these stones
were proof that man and this exceedingly ancient species of bison had
co-existed. His findings were published in 1927 in "Natural History".
In 1931 and 1933, Figgins went on to find other objects associated
with man that proved they lived simultaneously with mammoths. He also
studied Yuma artifacts. Mr. Figgins did
a great deal to push back the age of man’s existence. He was also known
for his meticulous recording of site finds and his insistence upon
always having scientific witnesses on a site. CLARITY RANKING:
5 ELIZA MUNROE University
of Georgia (Peter Brosius)
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