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American
Anthropologist
Bandelier, Adolph F. Traditions
of Pre-Columbian Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions in Traditions Of Precolumbian Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions in
Western South America, by Adolph F. Bandelier, is a second hand, ‘fragmentary’ account
that attempts, to determine the facts from myth of Native American
folklore about earthquakes and volcanic activity prior to Spanish conquest
of Bandelier begins his article with indigenous folklore from Bandelier then considers Finally, Bandelier comments about CLARITY: 2
Blackiston, A.H. Ruins of the Cerro De Montezuma. American Anthropologist 1906. Vol. 8:256-261. Blackiston feels that the ruins of the Cerro De Montezuma have up to this time received little description or been given misleading accounts in published works he has read. His appraisal is based on first hand experience gained in visiting the site while accompanied by a Mexican guide. The author describes the area in some detail with measurements of all of the principal structures and formations. Cerro De Montezuma sits high on a mountain peak with a well-built path cut down the mountain, which maintains a uniform grade. It stretches approximately six miles long ending at a cluster of twenty-two small ruined but solidly built stone structures. The author discusses the possibility that this is a village that supported the ruins in the mountain above. Farther up the mountain approximately two hundred feet south of the village there are the remains of a larger circular foundation. Our author presumes that it is the remains of a small tower of some kind. Upon the mountain crest surrounded by a wall 56ft in diameter and 6 ft high are the remains of a large monolithic stone tower or building, which is heavily fortified. Two defensive walls surround it. His assertion is that it is a watchtower for the ruins on the mountain as well as the village below. Ninety feet down the western slope is an opening, which had been walled in. Because local legend says this tunnel is the tomb of Montezuma, treasure hunters have used high explosives to get 135 feet into the tunnel. At the time of this article’s publication they have still found nothing in the tunnel. He comments repeatedly on the militaristic style layout and construction techniques of the builders. The ruins were built of precisely cut stones fitted tightly together with no mortar. Popular legend has called this ruin the palace of the king Montezuma. He feels, that there is little definite evidence to prove this. His conclusion is that even though his article lays to rest most questions regarding the ruins, the real secret to the true nature of these inhabitants and how they lived still lives deep inside the Cerro de Montezuma ruins. CLARITY: 3 SHANE STEWARD
Breton, Adela C. The The author’s objective is to describe the Thirteenth
session of the International Congress of Anthropology and Archeology.
The main topic
of discussion was about the Eolithic and Paleolithic origins. The first
meeting was devoted to the discussion of the Eolithic and Paleolithic
periods. M. Rutor took part in the discussion of describing the human
origin of the eolithic and Dr. Bourlon described his experience digging
at Le Mouster where he found Chellean implements. In this article
Breton discusses four of the cave finding that are being discussed at
this session and the origin of the Negroid type. The first cave that
was found was Grotte du Prince where sixteen foyers, or hearths with
implements were found, but no human remain were found. The second
cave Barma Grande three skeletons were found by M.Rivere, which
he classified as L.Homme de Menton. The third cave Grotte des
enfants where a skeleton of a woman strewn over with shells and a
round piece of iron was found near the shoulder of this woman. M.Rivere
also discovered the fourth cave the foyer des efants, with children skeletons
and small simple flakes implements with notched sides indicating a characteristic
of the Paleolithic period. Also a skeleton of an old women and a young
man was found. The man was found with four rows of nassa shells around
his head and flint chips were found around his body. This skeleton was
of the Cro-Magnon type. At the session the main topic of discussion was
about the cave finding and the origin of these findings. Dr. Verneau
proposes to call L’Homme de Grimaldi the cave in commune of Grimaldi
the Negroid type. The same types of burials with the Negroid type and
similar implements have been found in CLARITY: 4
E. T. Brewster, E. T. Note On the Determination
of Sex in Brewster’s article investigates the possibility of determining sex in
humans. Prior to Brewster’s findings, Dr. John Nichols investigated
the very same topic, which resulted in many of the same conclusions. Brewster
sampled eight Within this article Brewster makes some very strong and questionable presumptions, that lead him to his final conclusions. He concluded that sex is not determined by chance distribution, but rather by the order in which a child is born. The numbers in his study show that the first-born children are almost always boys, especially when a woman has multiple children, (six or more). In addition, he believes that the strength of the woman and the age has some bearing on the sex of a child. Brewster makes the presumption that older woman that are still capable of bearing children are widows, which, causes them to become a second wife. Men seeking a second wife are usually looking for a woman that has more vigor (sexual stamina) than his first. Therefor second wives produce more males. In conclusion, Brewster tries to explain and determine the sex of children based on two “key” elements. 1) Within families of six or more children the number of boys being the first three born is more than average. 2) This can be explained by the larger amount of vigor in the mothers. Overall, Brewster believes that the determination of sex in man is not nearly by chance. For the most part, this is an extremely brief article that does not produce great evidence. The numbers and charts shown are not very easy to follow, and they do not seem to support his final conclusion. Basically, it seems that Brewster bases his theory on male chauvinistic ideas. CLARITY: 3
Burkitt, Robert. A Stone Ruin
At Robert Burkitt, in A Stone Ruin At Se-Tsak, Guatemala, sets out to simply describe the site and the ruins located therein. The author has few if any intellectual concerns in regards to the purpose of the ruins or the manner of its construction. Burkitt objectively presents the Se-Tsak ruins to the reader with the characteristic exactness of an archeological site survey. The article begins by giving the reader a brief background
on the site location, " in the The last quarter of the article is concerned with the ruins and their composition (limestone). Dimensions of the limestone blocks are briefly given (2.5 ft) as well as the fact that mortar was not used in its construction. Burkitt quickly confesses that, the interior was not explored and concludes with a fleeting speculation of the probable depth of the stairs being deeper than present. The description of the Se-Tsak ruins, though precise, was overall rather vague for its length. The article does a poor job at giving the reader a concrete and conceptual hold of the site in question, given the data presented (diagrams and dimensional measurements). CLARITY RANKING: 2
Bushnell, David I. Jr. North American Ethnographical Material in Italian Collections American Anthropologist 1906, Vol. 8:243-255 Bushnell’s article provides the description of artifacts
of Native American origin that reside in European museum collections
and an insight into
their history and how they came to be there. In the beginning of this
article Bushnell explains how two Mexican atlatls had been hidden away
to come to light at a later date and then put on display in a museum
in The author vaguely explains provenance of the items such as stating they came from the Cortez collection, or brought back by missionaries, or were collected during Captain Cook’s 1778 voyage, or a host other assorted undocumented sources. Bushnell distinguishes the geographical areas into culture areas according to the objects and the tribes by name who were prevalent in the described area and who may have manufactured the items. A lot of the objects however, have no record and their history is unfortunately unknown. In this article Bushnell appears to take the reader on a tour of the
collections of Native North American artifacts that are held in various
museums throughout CLARITY RANKING: 4
Bushnell, D.I. Jr. Relics
of Early Man in During the winter of 1853 the water level of the In the shallows of Some of the objects recovered from the lake included celts (a prehistoric axe), arrow points, saws, knives, and daggers, as well as ornaments and jewelry such as rings and bracelets. The items vary in material as well as design and craftsmanship. The early Stone Age sites yield objects made from various types of stone, some examples being porphyry, granite, quartzite and various jades. Bone, antler, and wood were also employed in the manufacture of objects. The researchers believe that the items present that were made of copper without an alloy mark the transition from Stone to Bronze Age. Only a few artifacts made of pure copper have been found among the hundreds made of bronze. Through these discoveries the history of the occupation of the lake
can be charted from Neolithic times to the final subjugation of Helvetia
by the Roman army when they chose Aventicum which is less then ten miles
away from Swiss archaeologists have determined that the shallows of This article presents evidence for the development of a timeline of
habitation of the CLARITY RANKING: 5
Bushnell, David I. Jr. The Sloan Collection
in the Bushnell wrote a series of appraisals of American artifacts in European
collections and museums during a tour of Not formally trained as an anthropologist, Bushnell was a scholar and
avid photographer. He was an assistant at the Using the original manuscript detailing the “miscellaneous” portion of the Sloan collection, Bushnell lists items that have been lost. The spellings, descriptions, and notes are reproduced as they appear in the original. The items’ provenance are less than pristine, but the descriptions, especially when accompanied by more detailed notes, are interesting reading. They illustrate the anecdotal nature of information from early collections. Bushnell, known for his use of photography, supplies
black and white plates highlighting objects of superior quality, including
an “Indian” drum,
which is likely West African in origin, exceptional baskets from This article also allows the reader a perspective on the state of early
private collections, and how restricted access and information was in
1905. The selections appearing in Bushnell's photographs are of exceptional
quality and may be known to students of fine, native, North American
technology. The drum, baskets, and spoon on his plates are artifacts
worth viewing in color on the CLARITY: 4
Culin, Stewart. Hjalmar Stolpe. American Anthroplogist. 1906 Vol. 8: 150-156 Stewart Culin writes the obituary of Hjalmar Stolpe, who died on January 27, 1905. The obituary provides basic biographical information on the life and education of Stolpe. We further find biographical detail on Stolpe’s profession, and how a new trajectory from zoology to archeology was taken. The author states that through Stolpe’s newfound professional inclination
towards archeology and more specifically ethnology, that pre-existing
collections of archeological artifacts were expanded upon as well scientifically
arranged and catalogued. Stolpe’s in-depth investigation and mapping
of expansive grave-fields in northern Bjorko, an island in Stolpe’s new model was based on a scientific approach to the comparative study of ornamental art, which up until then had not been utilized as a means of ethnographic data collection. All of which suggests the early footsteps into a ‘relativistic paradigm’, which would not be fully developed until Franz Boas and some of his student years later. Stolpe’s newly applied scientific principles led him to be considered the first in the field of ethnology to take a rational approach in regards to the analysis of ornamental art/artifacts. The obituary informs us that Stolpe acquired a tremendous amount of
physical data as well as artistic representations of archeological artifacts.
The artifacts added to the collections of museums, both historical and
art based, throughout CLARITY RANKING: 4
Frances Densmore in his paper, The Music of the Filipinos, opens
with a brief explanation of how he came to study Filipino music during
the Louisiana Purchase Exposition that was held in Densmore collects and analyzes a great deal of observational
data, which aides in the development of his hypothesis on the progression
of what
he calls ‘primitive’ music. The author explains that he discovered four
forms of musical expression in Filipino music, which he believed progressed
in order of development from: (1) instrumental music, (2) unaccompanied,
improvised song, (3) accompanied, improvised song and, (4) repeated
melody w/ instrumental accompaniment. He notes that the most prominent
characteristic of the unaccompanied, improvised songs was that
they were rhythm-less songs of love and grief. From this Densmore argues
that all (namely Filipino) ‘primitive’ music derives from a simple emotionally
response to communicate, much like a pre-verbal infant. The author closely
studied the music of four cultural groups (Negritos, Igorots, Samal Moro, & the
Lanao Moro) from the Densmore notes that out of the four musical forms only two used melody-producing instruments, where as the others used percussion instruments alone (i.e. gongs) to produce a variety of rhythms. Densmore believes that this pattern provides proof that 'primitive' rhythm is a form of emotional expression directly from the mind of the performer. The author expands on his hypothesis by presenting the supposition that vocal music is akin to the call or cry of an infant and that such emotional impetus is what bore the art of vocal music. The author continues his analysis of the four forms by speculating that emotion is behind the first form of instrumental musical expression. Densmore follows up with his belief that: "..Concluding that the mental ability to retain a repeated melody is a greater achievement than the original form, and with instrumental accompaniment the musical progression begins to assume what he believes to be a tangible form. Densmore’s abstract of his more in-depth analysis, which takes up the last half of the article, is thorough yet highly suppositional. His psychological analysis of the emotional impetus of the people behind the music is impressive; however, lacks the references to source data to help support his argument. CLARITY RANKING: 4
Dorsey, George A. Pawnee War Tales. American Anthropologist 1906 Vol. 8:337-345. In the article “Pawnee War Tales” George Dorsey presents two accounts of Pawnee war practices. The stories that form the body of the piece were procured from George Shooter, an old warrior of the Chaui. Dorsey acts as a relater, seemingly never straying from the tales to interject his own anthropological findings. The reader is left to explore the text of the article, and derive from it the cultural practices, and raiding methods of the Pawnee. The article is broken up into two chapters, the first
of which is entitled, “The
Defeat of the Pawnee by the “Peace Between the Pawnee and the Comanche” is much more descriptive than the first section. The reader learns about the preparation of young men for war, and the diplomacy utilized by the Pawnee and Comanche. There is a degree of information conveyed, concerning the politics and social order of the Comanche. This chapter also stresses the importance of two possessions. Ponies, for their material value, and the pipe for its spiritual importance, are both coveted. These items act as catalysts in the tale that Dorsey is relating. Toward the end of the article, it becomes difficult to understand precisely what is going on. Despite this deterioration, it was an easy piece to read and understand. My only concern is that the reader is made to feel that they are getting a close account of the events, but they are not. Dorsey has taken the tales that he has heard, and translated them into his own words. There is much to be learned from this article, however one must take into accounts the author’s ability to distort the truth. CLARITY RANKING: 4
Emerson, Nathaniel B. Unwritten
Literature of The Unwritten Literature of Hawaii by Nathaniel
B. Emerson is the beginning of a manuscript that had not been published
at the time
of this article’s publication in 1906. The content of this brief introduction
deals with the origin of the "hula" dance in ancient Emerson states that the hula originated from the epic tales of the volcanic goddess Pele. From there, the dances evolved as a recording of various aspects of Hawaiian life. The author acknowledges that the hula originated as a religious event and there is an abundance of information to be learned from these earlier epic tales. Emerson does not however, approve of how the hula dance has changed over time. What was once and "institution of divine" has become sinful in the author’s interpretation. He makes a Biblical comparison of hula dance to ‘Jacob’s voice and the hand of Esau.’ Emerson feels that the ancient art, from which the original hula dance originated from, has been lost in the seductive, obscene movements that the dance now embodies. This article appears to lack any substantial evidence except that the hula originated as a dance to appease the goddess Pele. Emerson’s opinions are the basis of this article, and his biases against the ancient, as well as, the modern day Polynesians are quite evident, referring to them as a "childlike" society. He does give the Polynesians credit for the complexity of this dance and yet he marvels at how well the dances reveal the intimate details of their daily lives. CLARITY: 4
Fewkes, J. Walter Hopi Ceremonial
Frames from Canon J. Walter Fewkes, in Hopi Ceremonial Frames From Canon De Chelly, The first item described by Fewkes is a ceremonial frame used by the Apparently the discovery of the frames was inspired by and verified a speculated Navaho Legend concerning the lineage of several groups of people such as the Asa Clan, Tanoan People and the Zuni. Found with these frames were fragments of ceremonial masks, which according to the legend, were used with the frames in a ritual practiced by the aforementioned people. However having no prior knowledge of these people, the details, which Walter Fewkes elaborates, are obscure to the reader. The frames themselves consist of a bar, which resembles an implement used by a modern construction tradesperson known as a level. On each side of the bar is a leg appearing to be 10-12" tall with a round base. In the middle of the bar is a pyramid like piece on a stick slotted into a hole and used as a handle. The author cites that this piece symbolizes a rain cloud. This implement is held by the handle and shaken violently to make a rattling sound. Fewkes then makes mention of a similar frame used in Hopi ceremony which he introduced in his work "The Lesser Fire Ceremony at Walpi". Furthermore Fewkes explains that these frames were used in conjunction with masks (also found in the cave) worn by the frame-wielding priest called Yayas for a ceremony called Sumaikoli and Kawikoli (these titles are named after supernatural powers). Next the author discusses a similar ritual practiced in a Shumaakwe ceremony by the Zuni. An account of this ceremony was described in a paragraph cited by the author. This description by Mrs. Stevenson, apparently a scholar of the same subject, describes men using these frames before a god, which has mystical control over them. Also described is a man who sings a low chant during the ritual ceremony. Walter Fewkes then points out that there are several characteristics shared in common by the Sumaikoli ritual with the Fire dance of the Navajo. The yaya priest’s are healers who also claim to have magical powers to control fire. These priests are involved with several rituals. Some rituals may entail calling upon ancestral beings, while others are designed to bring rain, and yet others are prayer offerings to the supernatural. Found with the frames in a bag was stick which has the appearance of a flute, although it is not. This stick served a function in ceremonial rituals. Also found in the cave was a painted animal skin. To understand the correlations and conclusions, which Walter Fewkes drew in his article, would require the reader to have a substantial amount of knowledge about the Hopi and other people of the ancient southwest, prior to it’s reading. The article does not come to a conclusion as to the ownership of the objects or from which clan they originally came. The author bounces around making suggestions and predictions. Walter Fewkes addressed a very interesting subject matter but unfortunately created a quite non-desirable article. CLARITY RANKING: 2
Fewkes, Walter J. The Sun’s Influence on the form of Hopi Pueblos. American Anthropologist. 1906 vol.8: 89-100 In this article Walter J. Fewkes explains the different arrangements
of houses in Hopi Pueblos in parallel row separate by courts of plazas.
His discussion is about the villages of CLARITY RANKING: 1
Fewkes, Walter, J. An Ancient
Megalith in In An Ancient Megalith in In attempting to interpret the depictions on the megalith, the author refers to two published reports on the megalith. In one report, "A penitential rite of the Ancient Mexicans" Nuttall stated that the picture depicts a priest drawing blood from his tongue by piercing it with a pointed stick. The author also refers to the interpretation given by Senor Batres. Bates identifies the human figure as the god Ehecatl and the reptile as Quetzalcoatl. He interprets the figures as being engaged in a penitential rite with the reptile receiving blood from the tongue of Ehecatl. The author goes on to give more descriptive details of the human and reptile figures and addresses the symbolism of man and serpent in early Mexico. He refers to several pages from the Codex Cortesianus, which show pictures of serpents accompanied by men wearing helmet masks. The masks are almost the exact image as that of the head of the reptiles surrounding the men. The author stipulates that the men wearing helmet masks may be priest impersonating the same God, and that God is also represented as a serpent. Fewkes used the same analogy to reason that the human figure on the megalith could represent a priest personating the same supernatural being as the accompanying reptile. In summarizing, Fewkes sees the two figures as representing one god; he also finds that they are connected with the human figure representing a priest performing a bloodletting rite and the reptile or serpent figure signifying a supernatural being. CLARITY RATING: 2
Fewkes, Walter J. Hopi Shrines
Near the Fewkes describes different kinds of Hopi shrines found around the Fewkes outlines several clans that inhabited this area, their origins, relations to each other, and some of their gods and religious beliefs. A Hopi shrine is any place where prayer offerings can be left and can range from an enclosure with a permanent idol installed to a cleft in a rock or a pile of stones. Most of the larger shrines consist of circles of stones with a large rock used as a back. A shrine can be a kind of box with three walls made from upright stone slabs, with no roof. Hopi animal traps are similar in construction to these, and so are often mistaken for shrines. All types of Hopi shrines may contain offerings such as clay images, miniature bowls, food, tobacco, and prayer sticks. Some Hopi shrines are dedicated to certain supernatural beings. Fewkes
gives several specific examples of these shrines, along with a description
of the site, the deity, and any ceremony or myths associated with it.
Photographs of some of these shrines are included. Other shrines are
built in the center of a pueblo plaza. They may have a sunken floor,
and represent an opening to the underworld through which humans originally
emerged. World quarter shrines are located in each of the four cardinal
directions, as determined by sunrise and sunset. Often pictographs of
gods or other figures are found near shrines. One example, featuring
Kwataka, a mythic birdlike being, is included in the paper. The many
springs near the This article contains a wealth of information about Hopi shrines, and the author gives plenty of examples of specific shrines. The multitude of clan names, deity names, and shrine names can prove tedious. CLARITY RANKING: 3
Fowke, Gerard. Exploration
of the This article reports the findings of the 1898 excavation of the area
within 350 miles of the Amur River in The Amur people called the depressions in the ground where dwellings once existed house-pits and spoke of them as the abodes of the "old people." But the identity of "the old people," or the time period that they occupied the area remain a mystery. A native of a current Goldi village reported that he had been one of the natives occupying an area comprising of about twelve house-pits and that the area was abandoned about twenty years before. After scrutiny of the archaeological findings, it was concluded that
the way of life led by those who abandoned or were otherwise wiped-out
of the excavated villages was similar to the lifestyle of the current
inhabitants. If earlier people resided in the area surrounding the This article will be of interest to those interested in the archaeological findings of the excavated area during the stipulated time period. The article contains detailed reporting of the artifacts discovered, but little on the cultural continuity of the site is established. CLARITY RATING: 3
Grinnell, George Bird Cheyenne Stream Names. American Anthropologist, 1906 Vol. 8: 15-22. George Bird Grinnell, in Cheyenne Stream Names, has recorded data pertaining
to the stream names in the previous homeland of the indigenous people
of the American West, The Cheyenne. He first states the English version
then in italics the Grinnell asserts that many early The A few examples, Wyoming’s Wind River, Hohkomeomap in George Bird Grinnell’s article Cheyenne Stream Names is a concise accurate depiction of historical data. CLARITY RANKING: 5
Hewett, Edgar L. Preservation Of American Antiquities; Progress During The Last Year; Needed Legislation’. American Anthropologist, 1906 Vol. 8: 109-114 Edgar L. Hewett, was an Archaeologist actively supporting Preservation for American Antiquities. The article is an abstract for a paper, which Hewett read before a joint meeting of The American Anthropological Association and The Archaeological Institute of America. Hewett introduces a policy of preservation being legislated by the United
States Congress. The policy is intended to preserve artifacts of antiquity
in the American Southwest. Many artifacts were found on lands owned or
controlled by the The American Southwest was a longtime home of several prominent Native
American Civilizations. The antiquities being preserved are the remains
and ruins of those civilizations. The first act of this type of legislation was enacted by congress on
March 2, 1889 and protected the Casa Grande ruin in Several prominent government organizations became involved in the preservation of antiquities legislation. The Office of Indian Affairs for example became involved in an effort to prevent unauthorized excavation of remains on reservations. This pertained specifically to Indian traders who would sell prehistoric artifacts for small profits. Some Native American Peoples of the Southwest who became involved due to this legislation were The Hopi, Ute, Navaho and so on. In order to further organize the new legislation the US Forest Service and The Us Office of Indian Affairs established several precedents to ensure proper conduct on government-protected land. It was established that all excavations be performed by The Southwest Society of the Archaeological Institute of America under the oversight and in cooperation with The Bureau of American Ethnology. Furthermore all data of excavations must be filed with The Bureau of American Ethnology. All of the departments involved agreed across the board that all work done on protected land should be done for the purpose of advancement of the knowledge of archaeology. Finally all permits issued to any other institution must meet the approval of the aforementioned institutions. The proposals described in Hewett’s abstract were accepted by The American
Anthropological Association and The Archaeological Institute of America
and were later legislated by the United States Congress. Hewett’s proposal
is a definitive mark in the history of preservation in the CLARITY RANKING: 4
Hitz, John. Helen Keller. American Anthropologist 1906 Vol.8: 308-324. In this article, John Hitz gives a brief overview of the extraordinary life of Helen Keller. The article begins by stating what a remarkable blind deaf-mute Helen Keller was. She was the first person of blind deaf-mute status to earn a college degree. Helen Keller’s life began normally, meaning that she possessed all of her sensory faculties. At the young age of eighteen months, Helen became ill and lost her sight and hearing. Helen’s parents were tired of her misbehaving and decided she needed to be properly taught. Her parents were not qualified to take on the task, so they sought out someone who was. Miss Anne Sullivan was appointed to the difficult job. At first, the task at hand seemed impossible for Miss Sullivan. However, with patience, time, and a loving heart, she eventually made progress with Helen. She taught Helen the finger alphabet, and how to read brail. She opened the doors to Helen’s previously void mind. The article goes on with excerpts written by Helen explaining her own feelings and experiences through the process of becoming educated. In the end, Helen could read, write, and speak. This article was excellent. It was well written and easy to read. It was a wonderful account of a special young girl’s struggle with overcoming disability. It illustrated that no matter how difficult things were for Helen, she always smiled and never quit trying. Education was a beautiful thing to Helen Keller. She never took any experience for granted. This was an inspiring and heart warming article. C LARITY: 5
Holmes, William, H. Certain Notched or Scalloped Stone Tablets of the Mound-Builders. American Anthropologist. Jan.-March., 1906 Vol. 8(1): 101-108. William Henry Holmes’ article brings together findings of previous stone tablets discovered in ancient mounds throughout the south and northeast United States. The stone tablets’ physical features range in size, proportion and detail. Their significance is such that they resembled tablets of Pueblo shamans, which were used to prepare color for sacred/ceremonial purposes. Also, the tablets’ style and symbolism resembles those from Ancient Mexico and Central America. Peculiarly, these highly designed tablets had sprung out in various localities (Ohio, Illinois, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama and Arizona). Holmes describes more than six tablets, showing the elaborateness and design techniques of each. He also emphasizes the human/animal forms (serpents, eye, and palm) that are engrained in these tablets and correlates them to existing symbolic figures such as Quetzalcoatl to convey the influence and the spread of certain beliefs. Holmes lays out certain tablets to describe the detailed designs and the symbolism/mythological origin. He supports the idea that these tablets, praised by their owners, were used to prepare colors, medicine and spices for sacred/religious ceremonial rituals, though more distinguishable representations existed. Some of the representations consisted of the human hand, open eye, rattlesnakes/serpents and death’s head symbols. Overall, the stone tablets had intertwined designs and more unique figures that suggest the style was congruent to Ancient Mexican style. Holmes argues that these representations have a mythological origin. He states that this is clearly seen on a Mississippi tablet, which depicts two interlocked rattlesnakes with heads in reversed order as well as surface plumes and feathers. This correlates with the Serpent God in the South and Southwest and the feathered serpent, Quetzalcoatl. Thus, he indicates that the culture of Middle America (Mexico and Central America) had influenced the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico and even farther Northern areas. Specifically, Holmes correlated the stone tablets found in the South and Northeast to Metates of Ancient Mexicans and Central Americans. According to Holmes, both the stone tablet’s and Metate’s designs represent the animal God of which its’ supernatural powers (coming from God himself) are passed along to the substance made upon it. Via sacred/religious ceremonies these sacred substances are released. The stone tablets discovered in the South and Northeast give a northern touch to the Ancient Mexican and Central American style. The attachments of symbols are representative of the stone tablets’s power and the substance embody. The article offered an informative combination of description, visuals and symbolism elements. CLARITY: 4 VANESSA NAVA Loyola University Chicago (Kathleen Adams)
Jenks, Albert Ernest. Tang’-ga, a Philippine Pa-ma’-to’ Game. American Anthropologist, 1906 Vol. 8:82-87 Coin games are popular among Filipino males. One favored coin game is called Tang’ga. It is a game of skill requiring hand and eye coordination. It is a gambling game, but when money is scarce it is still played for amusement. The author recounts his observations of Tang’ga. He does not have an argument concerning the game. The author does not say he has experienced the playing of Tang’ga first hand, but it is assumed from the descriptive language he uses in the article. The game is played on about an 8-foot area of bare ground. Two players are needed, but up to five are able to play. A small cylinder made of pottery or stone is needed as well as coins. The cylinder is called a "tanguero" in Tagalog. The tanguero is set on the ground on one of its flat sides. The players then stack their coins on top of the tanguero. The author does not indicate whether a specific number of coins are required for the tanguero, but in diagrams he shows six. The players each have two other coins called pa-ma’-tos. To begin the game, one of the players throws one of his coins about six feet away. The players, including the one who threw the first coin, try to throw one of their coins as close to that coin as possible. Whoever is the closest gets to go first and so on. The object of tang’-ga is to knock down the coins that are stacked on the tanguero. Whoever has the most coins near his pa-ma’-to is the winner. He can then keep those coins. The author goes into great detail with different scenarios of play and explains them with diagrams. The author refers to the Filipinos in a derogatory manner. He compares their squatting over the game as ‘animal-like’. He also describes them as ‘passive and indolent.’ The author also contradicts himself by saying that considerable skill is needed to toss a pa-ma’-to, but then refers to the game as ‘developing a low order of skill which seems valueless in any worthier pursuit.’ This was a common outlook of non-Western cultures at the turn of the century. Because the reader is not able to see a game of Tang’ga in action, it is somewhat difficult to follow the author’s description of how the game is played. CLARITY RANKING: 3
Kroeber, A. L. The Dialectical
Divisions of the Moquelumnan Family in Relation to the Internal Differentiation
of the Other Linguistic Families of This article is an attempt to summarize the results of studies done
on several Californian linguistic families, determine the nature and
degree to which the families were different, and emphasize the importance
of studying the Moquelumnan family of The author divides, gives some subdivisions of, and briefly describes the locations of the various Californian language families; Maidu, Shasta, Achomawi, Yurok, Kork, Wishosk, Chimariko, Athabascan, Hupa, Yuki, Pomo, Wappo, Wintun, Washo, Costanoan, Esslen, Salinan, Chumash, Shoshonean, Yuman, Yokut, and Moquelumnan. It is the author's belief that the Moquelumnan family is important because
its geographic location is between the Maidu and Yokut families, who
all shared similar environments. These two families have different dialectical
divisions; Maidu having three dialects, each without significant sub-dialectic
divisions or relation to the political unit, and, Yokut having at least
40 dialects grouped into 6 principle dialects, each of which is differentiated
into many sub-dialects that correspond to the political unit. The Moquelumnan
family has two divisions, the first, and smaller one having three dialects.
The second division, classified by Kroeber as the principle division,
was known as Miwok. This language group was believed to have occupied
one of the largest territories held by one family in CLARITY: 3
Lamb, Daniel. The Story of the Anthropological
Society of On the twenty-seventh anniversary of the Anthropological Society of Washington, Daniel Lamb presented this historical account of the organization’s history as his presidential address. Lamb begins with a listing of professional organizations already present at the time, then briefly describes the necessity for the establishment of a larger and more organized Anthropological Society of Washington. He includes a newspaper advertisement calling to “promote study and diffuse knowledge upon the subject” of Anthropology. The attendance from this first meeting is also included, seemingly to provide insight into the diverse professions of the society’s founding members. It appears that every meeting from the official beginnings of the Society in 1887, until Lamb’s presidential term in 1905 has mention in this article. Lamb dedicates a majority of this article to listings of members, guest speakers and elected officials of the organization. His listing of names may be symbolic to the contemporary Anthropologist, but appear to be nothing more than attendance lists to the conventional reader. Lamb does provide some valuable accounts of historical Anthropology such as a mention of Dr. Robert Flecher’s presidential speech regarding, “The New School of Criminal Anthropology.” Lamb completes his essay with a sense of optimism for the increasing scope and knowledge of the Society and the discipline of Anthropology. CLARITY: 4
MacCurdy, George Grant. The Fifteenth International Congress of Americanists. American Anthropologist 1906 Vol. 8:691-670 George Grant MacCurdy describes in this article the papers and events
of the Fifteenth International Congress of Americanists. The Congress
was held in the Parliament building in After providing the necessary background information MacCurdy highlights some of the papers that were read at the Congress. The papers represent a variety of research in both physical and cultural anthropology by persons such as Franz Boas and Dr. Charles Peabody. These readings are dealt with in chronological order running from Monday to Saturday. Each paper that was read at the Congress is provided with an author, title, and a brief summary of the information given in the paper. In some instances there was a theme for the day. The rest of the article deals with some of the events surrounding the Congress of Americanists. Mr. MacCurdy is very organized in his style of writing and uses the chronological approach in providing information effectively. Some of the summaries do go much farther in depth that others, while some receive but a footnote towards the end of the article. Although not a great deal of information is contained within the article itself, there are many potential readings listed that may be of use to a researcher. CLARITY RANKING: 4 GERALD VAN BOLT Cleveland State University (Jeffrey P. Williams)
Merriam, John C. Recent Cave
Exploration in In John C. Merriam’s article Recent Cave Exploration in California,
he explores and further elaborates on four cave discoveries in the Pacific
Coast Region. Merriam and his colleagues try to determine the earliest
existence of humanity, a possible migratory pattern to Between 1901 and 1902 Mercer’s cave near Murphy’s County
in and that it had fallen into a deeper chamber of the cave. The human skeletons were found in the chamber nearest top, having only a thin covering of stalagmatic material. It was concluded that it was merely a burial site for the aboriginal population, although the bones may have been there for some time. The second cave mentioned is During the years 1903, 1904, and 1905, E.L. Furlong engaged in the extensive
exploration of the The final cave mentioned is The article concludes by giving elevations of the caves
in respect to surrounding rivers and one another. The author’s main
point is to document the findings, and how further study might explain
early anthropological
findings in CLARITY RANKING: 3
Montgomery, Henry. Remains of Prehistoric
Man in the In this paper, Henry Montgomery gives very detailed descriptions of
different mounds found throughout North and In the next part of the article Montgomery gives very
detailed accounts of what was found in 21 mounds throughout the area;
13 mounds in Ramsey
County, 4 mounds in Benson County, 3 mounds in Walsh County, and 1 mound
in Grand Fork County. He breaks up the contents by focusing on
what was uncovered, in a very orderly fashion. Montgomery begins
by describing the superficial layer of the mound, he then moves to the
human remains found, followed by the pottery that was found among the
burial items, and then some of the other artifacts found within the graves
of these people. The article is summed up when CLARITY RANKING: 4
Nuttall, Zelia. Some Unsolved Problems in Mexican Archeology. American Anthropologist. 1906 Vol. 8:133-149. Zelia Nuttall, in Some Unsolved Problems in Mexican Archeology, explores the different theories of diffusion of culture. He incorporates the philosophies and studies of other anthropological researchers in an attempt to address the controversy surrounding the independent source of transmission of certain common cultural habits, for example language and the use of mathematical principles, from one part of the globe to another. Nuttall focuses on early Nuttall traces the origin of the artificial theory of
the four elements – earth,
air, fire and water. He discusses the complex systems that the Mexicans
operated before the Spanish conquered Nuttall seems to be influenced by Boas’s perspective that cultures should be studied in their social contexts, and that no aspect of culture is evolutionary or universal. Nuttall introduces this material, not with affirmation, but with his own uncertainties and perplexities and hopes that he will get the attention of those interested in the history of the origin of Mexican culture. CLARITY RATING: 2
Peabody, Charles. Some Notes on Anthropology and Archaeology. American Anthropologist August, 1906 Vol. 8:325-336 This article is about Charles Peabody’s concern for the
future of anthropology. He believes that at the present course, during
which he wrote the article,
that there existed a growing chasm between the fields of anthropology
and archaeology. He blamed this growing separation on contemporary scientists
who underutilized the field of archaeology as a tool for understanding
the past. He makes an analogy of an inverted One in particular was a woman who uncovered remains dating
so far back, that she sought to further educate herself in the Anthropology
Department
of Harvard University to gain a well-rounded background needed in understanding
the time frame she was dealing with. CLARITY: 3 JOSE SERRANO
Putnam, F.W. Evidence of the
Work of Man on Objects Found from In his article, Putnam presents evidence that various bone and stone
fragments found in Quaternary cave sites of Shasta and Potter Creek in The specimens from the polished and pointed bone fragments have beveled edges and a distinct notch at the opposite end. These beveled edges produce a terminal point, and Putnam argues against any natural process that could have produced this. In the second class, bone fragments with perforations, Putnam seeks the opinion of several comparative anatomists. Using the anatomists' conclusions to support his own argument, Putnam quotes their findings on the specimens. Their opinion was that the perforations could not be the products of water, insects, mollusks, rodents, or the teeth of a carnivore. They concluded that the only alternative source for the perforations was human. In addition, the anatomists determined the specimen compares most favorably with Ovibos. For the third class, the splintered bone fragments, Putnam again asserts that the only explanation is the work of humans. He points out that the beveled edges and canals of bone, which are cut across the perforations, could have no natural explanation. The fourth class, the stone fragments, Putnam states, are most definitely made by humans. These fragments were not seen in place and were brought to the surface with buckets, so it is not definitive that these fragments even came from the Quaternary period, but Putnam defends his position by stating that there is evidence that these specimens were derived from Quaternary beds. CLARITY: 4
Recent Progress in American Anthropology; a Review of the Activities and Individuals and Institutions from 1902-1906. American Anthropologist, September 1906 Vol.8(3):441-554. This article describes the formation of anthropological academic societies or organizations; academic programs, special interest groups and influential individuals during this period. This piece primarily addresses academic institutions, opening with the most influential. Under a heading bearing the name of a particular group, the author names all papers presented to the societies, all papers published by these societies, all legislation enacted due to petitioning government, and all board members. The American Anthropological Association, formalized June 30, 1902, was the first institution discussed, followed by the United States Government and the Smithsonian Institution. Other institutions include the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Museum, Harvard University and Museum, the Division of Anthropology, Harvard Anthropological Society, Radcliffe Anthropological Club, Yale University and Museum, Columbia University, the American Museum of Natural History, the Brooklyn Institute Museum, the Field Museum of Natural History, University of Pennsylvania, University of California, Anthropological Societies of California, Clark University, Phillips Academy, The Anthropological Society of Washington, the American Ethological Society, the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Folk-Lore Society, the American Institute of America, the American Antiquarian Society, Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, Wisconsin Archaeological Society, Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, Minnesota Historical Society, Iowa Anthropological Society, State Historical Society of Iowa, other Iowa Institutions, American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, Delaware County Institute of Science, Ethnological Survey for the Philippine Islands, and the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum (pp 441-529). In the second section, the author discusses specific accomplishments of individual persons, beginning with the most influential researcher. Most individuals were either archaeologists or had contributed research to the preservation of American Indian societies. Individuals mentioned are Clarence B. Moore, Gerard Fowke, George G. Heye, Edward Anthony Spitzka, Stansburg Hagar, G. Frederick Wright, William E. Safford, Henry Pittier de Fabrega, Alice C Fletcher, Zelia Nuttall, Henry Montgomery, Willam Wallace Tooker and William R. Gerard, Maurice Fishberg, John Dynely Prince, Carl Lumholz, H S Albert, Mary Alicia Owen, Alton H Thomson, Frances Densmore, George Bird Grinnell and P. S. Sparkman. After thoroughly describing the accomplishments of these individuals, there is a brief l |
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